Post-translational modifications (PTMs) allot versatility to the biological functions of highly conserved proteins. Recently, modifications to non-histone proteins such as methylation, acetylation, phosphorylation, glycosylation, ubiquitination, and many more have been linked to the regulation of pivotal pathways related to cellular response and stability. Due to the roles these dynamic modifications assume, their dysregulation has been associated with cancer and many other important diseases such as inflammatory disorders and neurodegenerative diseases. For this reason, we present a review and perspective on important post-translational modifications on non-histone proteins, with emphasis on their roles in diseases and small molecule inhibitors developed to target PTM writers. Certain PTMs' contribution to epigenetics has been extensively expounded; yet more efforts will be needed to systematically dissect their roles on non-histone proteins, especially for their relationships with nononcological diseases. Finally, current research approaches for PTM study will be discussed and compared, including limitations and possible improvements.

The rapid ascension of immune checkpoint blockade treatments has placed an emphasis on the need for viable, robust, and noninvasive imaging methods for immune checkpoint proteins, which could be of diagnostic value. Immunoconjugate-based positron emission tomography (immuno-PET) allows for sensitive and quantitative imaging of target levels and has promising potential for the noninvasive evaluation of immune checkpoint proteins. However, the advancement of immuno-PET is currently limited by available imaging tools, which heavily rely on full-length IgGs with Fc-mediated effects and are heterogeneous mixtures upon random conjugation with chelators for imaging. Herein, we have developed a site-specific αPD-L1 Fab conjugate with the chelator 1,4,7triazacyclononane-N,N′,N″-triacetic acid (NOTA), enabling radiolabeling for PET imaging, using the amber suppression-mediated genetic incorporation of unnatural amino acid (UAA), pazidophenylalanine. This Fab conjugate is homogeneous and demonstrated tight binding toward the PD-L1 antigen in vitro. The radiolabeled version, 64 Cu-NOTA-αPD-L1, has been employed in PET imaging to allow for effective visualization and mapping of the biodistribution of PD-L1 in two normal mouse models, including the capturing of different PD-L1 expression levels in the spleens of the different mouse types. Follow-up in vivo blocking studies and ex vivo fluorescent staining further validated specific tissue uptakes of the imaging agent. This approach illustrates the utility of UAA-based site-specific Fab conjugation as a general strategy for making sensitive PET imaging probes, which could facilitate the elucidation of the roles of a wide variety of immune checkpoint proteins in immunotherapy.

We have developed a novel bioorthogonal reaction that can selectively displace fluorine substitutions alpha to amide bonds. This fluorine–thiol displacement reaction (FTDR) allows for fluorinated cofactors or precursors to be utilized as chemical reporters, hijacking acetyltransferase-mediated acetylation both in vitro and in live cells, which cannot be achieved with azide- or alkyne-based chemical reporters. The fluoroacetamide labels can be further converted to biotin or fluorophore tags using FTDR, enabling the general detection and imaging of acetyl substrates. This strategy may lead to a steric-free labeling platform for substrate proteins, expanding our chemical toolbox for functional annotation of post-translational modifications in a systematic manner.

Genetic incorporation of unnatural amino acids (UAAs) provides a unique approach to the synthesis of site-specific antibody conjugates that are homogeneous and better defined constructs than random conjugates. Yet, the yield varies for every antibody, and the process is costly and time-consuming. We have developed a switchable αGCN4-Fab conjugate that incorporates UAA p-acetylphenylalanine. The GCN4 peptide is used as a switch, and antibodies fused by GCN4 can direct the αGCN4-Fab conjugate to target different cancer cells for diagnosis, imaging, or therapeutic treatment. More importantly, this switchable conjugate demonstrated an impressive potential for pretargeted imaging in vivo. This approach illustrates the utility of an orthogonal switch as a general strategy to endow versatility to a single antibody conjugate, which should facilitate the application of UAA-based site-specific conjugates for a host of biomedical uses in the future.

We report the discovery of a facile peptide macrocyclization and stapling strategy based on a fluorine thiol displacement reaction (FTDR), which renders a class of peptide analogues with enhanced stability, affinity, cellular uptake, and inhibition of cancer cells. This approach enabled selective modification of the orthogonal fluoroacetamide side chains in unprotected peptides in the presence of intrinsic cysteines. The identified benzenedimethanethiol linker greatly promoted the alpha helicity of a variety of peptide substrates, as corroborated by molecular dynamics simulations. The cellular uptake of benzenedimethanethiol stapled peptides appeared to be universally enhanced compared to the classic ring-closing metathesis (RCM) stapled peptides. Pilot mechanism studies suggested that the uptake of FTDR-stapled peptides may involve multiple endocytosis pathways in a distinct pattern in comparison to peptides stapled by RCM. Consistent with the improved cell permeability, the FTDR-stapled lead Axin and p53 peptide analogues demonstrated enhanced inhibition of cancer cells over the RCM-stapled analogues and the unstapled peptides.