The initiation and progression of Alzheimer disease (AD) is a complex process not yet fully understood. While many hypotheses have been provided as to the cause of the disease, the exact mechanisms remain elusive and difficult to verify. Proteomic applications in disease models of AD have provided valuable insights into the molecular basis of this disorder, demonstrating that on a protein level, disease progression impacts numerous cellular processes such as energy production, cellular structure, signal transduction, synaptic function, mitochondrial function, cell cycle progression, and proteasome function. Each of these cellular functions contributes to the overall health of the cell, and the dysregulation of one or more could contribute to the pathology and clinical presentation in AD. In this review, foci reside primarily on the amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) induced oxidative stress hypothesis and the proteomic studies that have been conducted by our laboratory and others that contribute to the overall understanding of this devastating neurodegenerative disease.
Glycogen synthase kinase (GSK) -3β is a multifunctional protein that has been implicated in the pathological characteristics of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), including the heightened levels of neurofibrillary tangles, amyloid-beta (Aβ) and neurodegeneration. In this study we used 12 month old SAMP8 mice, an AD model, to examine the effects GSK-3β may cause regarding the cognitive impairment and oxidative stress associated with AD. To suppress the level of GSK-3β, SAMP8 mice were treated with an antisense oligonucleotide (GAO) directed at this kinase. We measured a decreased level of GSK-3β in the cortex of the mice, indicating the success of the antisense treatment. Learning and memory assessments of the SAMP8 mice were tested post-antisense treatment using an aversive T-maze and object recognition test, both of which observably improved. In cortex samples of the SAMP8 mice, decreased levels of protein carbonyl and protein-bound HNE were measured indicating decreased oxidative stress. Nuclear factor erythroid -2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a transcription factor known to increase the level of many antioxidants, including glutathione-S transferase (GST), and is negatively regulated by the activity of GSK-3β. Our results indicated the increased nuclear localization of Nrf2 and level of GST, suggesting the increased activity of the transcription factor as a result of GSK-3β suppression, consistent with the decreased oxidative stress observed. Consistent with the improved learning and memory, and consistent with GSK-3b being a tau kinase, we observed decreased tau phosphorylation in brain of GAO-treated SAMP8 mice compared to that of RAO-treated SAMP8 mice. Lastly, we examined the ability of GAO to cross the blood-brain barrier and determined it to be possible. The results presented in this study demonstrate that reducing GSK-3 with a phosphorothionated antisense against GSK-3 improves learning and memory, reduces oxidative stress, possibly coincident with increased levels of the antioxidant transcriptional activity of Nrf2, and decreases tau phosphorylation. Our study supports the notion of GAO as a possible treatment for AD.
Parkinson's disease (PD) is an age-related, neurodegenerative motor disorder characterized by progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and presence of a-synuclein-containing protein aggregates. Mutations in the mitochondrial Ser/Thr kinase PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) are associated with an autosomal recessive familial form of early-onset PD. Recent studies have suggested that PINK1 plays important neuroprotective roles against mitochondrial dysfunction by phosphorylating and recruiting Parkin, a cytosolic E3 ubiquitin ligase, to facilitate elimination of damaged mitochondria via autophagy-lysosomal pathways. Loss of PINK1 in cells and animals leads to various mitochondrial impairments and oxidative stress, culminating in dopaminergic neuronal death in humans. Using a 2-D polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis proteomics approach, the differences in expressed brain proteome and phosphoproteome between 6-month-old PINK1-deficient mice and wild-type mice were identified. The observed changes in the brain proteome and phosphoproteome of mice lacking PINK1 suggest that defects in signaling networks, energy metabolism, cellular proteostasis, and neuronal structure and plasticity are involved in the pathogenesis of familial PD.
The catalytic activities of many transition-metal salts for dimethyl carbonate (DMC) synthesis from methyl carbamate (MC) and methanol were evaluated in a batch reactor. The reaction mechanism and kinetics on the outstanding catalyst ZnCl2 were further investigated in detail. X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetry (TG), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) characterization, quantum chemical calculation, and kinetics experiments all indicated that this reaction could be divided into two processes: (1) two MC molecules coordinated with ZnCl2 via N atom to produce Zn(MC)2Cl2. This intermediate would convert to Zn(MC)(NH3)Cl2 by reacting with one methanol molecule. This process was first order, relative to ZnCl2, and zeroeth order, relative to MC, from a macrokinetics viewpoint. (2) Zn(MC)(NH3)Cl2 further reacted with another methanol molecule to yield DMC and Zn(NH3)2Cl2, one ammonia molecule of Zn(NH3)2Cl2 could be substituted by MC at experimental temperature to form Zn(MC)(NH3)Cl2 again. This process was first order to both ZnCl2 and MC, from a macrokinetics viewpoint. It should be noted that Zn(MC)2Cl2 could not appear again after the first process, and the second process is the real catalysis cycle in DMC synthesis.
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