Two-dimensional perovskites have emerged as more intrinsically stable materials for solar cells. Chemical tuning of spacer organic cations has attracted great interest due to their additional functionalities. However, how the chemical nature of the organic cations affects the properties of two-dimensional perovskites and devices is rarely reported. Here we demonstrate that the selection of spacer cations (i.e., selective fluorination of phenethylammonium) affects the film properties of two-dimensional perovskites, leading to different device performance of two-dimensional perovskite solar cells (average n = 4). Structural analysis reveals that different packing arrangements and orientational disorder of the spacer cations result in orientational degeneracy and different formation energies, largely explaining the difference in film properties. This work provides key missing information on how spacer cations exert influence on desirable electronic properties and device performance of two-dimensional perovskites via the weak and cooperative interactions of these cations in the crystal lattice.

Two-dimensional (2D) perovskite quantum wells are generating broad scientific interest because of their potential for use in optoelectronic devices. Recently, it has been shown that layers of 2D perovskites can be grown in which the average thicknesses of the quantum wells increase from the back to the front of the film. This geometry carries implications for light harvesting applications because the bandgap of a quantum well decreases as its thickness increases. The general structural formula for the 2D perovskite systems under investigation in this work is (PEA)(MA)[PbI] (PEA = phenethyl ammonium, MA = methyl ammonium). Here, we examine two layered 2D perovskites with different distributions of quantum well thicknesses. Spectroscopic measurements and model calculations suggest that both systems funnel electronic excitations from the back to the front of the film through energy transfer mechanisms on the time scales of 100's of ps (i.e., energy transfer from thinner to thicker quantum wells). In addition, the model calculations demonstrate that the transient absorption spectra are composed of a progression of single exciton and biexciton resonances associated with the individual quantum wells. We find that exciton dissociation and/or charge transport dynamics make only minor contributions to the transient absorption spectra within the first 1 ns after photo-excitation. An analysis of the energy transfer kinetics indicates that the transitions occur primarily between quantum wells with values of n that differ by 1 because of the spectral overlap factor that governs the energy transfer rate. Two-dimensional transient absorption spectra reveal a pattern of resonances consistent with the dominance of sequential energy transfer dynamics.

Two-dimensional (2D) perovskites, with a formula of (RNH)MA PbI, have shown impressive photovoltaic device efficiency with improved stability. The operating mechanism of such photovoltaic devices is under debate and the scope of incorporated organic cations (RNH) is limited. We report a general post-annealing method to incorporate a variety of organic cations into 2D perovskites, which demonstrate significant device efficiencies (7-12%). A detailed investigation of the archetypical (CHNH)MAPbI ( n = 4) reveals that such perovskites thin films contain multiple 2D phases (i.e., 2D quantum wells, n = 2, 3, 4, ...). These phases appear to be distributed with decreasing n values from the top to the bottom of the 2D perovskites thin film, enabling efficient energy transfer in the first 500 ps and possible charge transfer at longer time scale, thereby accounting for high device efficiencies. Our post-annealing method is compatible with ambient condition and only requires relatively low annealing temperature for a very short period of time, offering significant prospects for scalable manufacturing of 2D perovskites solar cells.

The electronic structure of 2D semiconductors depends on their thickness, providing new opportunities to engineer semiconductors for energy conversion, electronics, and catalysis. Here we show how a 3D semiconductor, black phosphorus, becomes active for solar-to-chemical energy conversion when it is thinned to a 2D material. The increase in its band gap, from 0.3 eV (3D) to 2.1 eV (2D monolayer), is accompanied by a 40-fold enhancement in the formation of chemical products. Despite this enhancement, smaller flakes also have shorter excited state lifetimes. We deduce a mechanism in which recombination occurs at flake edges, while the "van der Waals" surface of black phosphorus bonds to chemical intermediates and facilitates electron transfer. The unique properties of black phosphorus highlight its potential as a customizable material for solar energy conversion and catalysis, while also allowing us to identify design rules for 2D photocatalysts that will enable further improvements in these materials.