In the era of the rapid development of cancer immunotherapy, there is a high level of interest in the application of cell-released small vesicles that stimulate the immune system. As cell-derived nanovesicles, exosomes show great promise in cancer immunotherapy because of their immunogenicity and molecular transfer function. The cargoes carried on exosomes have been recently identified with improved technological advances and play functional roles in the regulation of immune responses. In particular, exosomes derived from tumor cells and immune cells exhibit unique composition profiles that are directly involved in anticancer immunotherapy. More importantly, exosomes can deliver their cargoes to targeted cells and thus influence the phenotype and immune-regulation functions of targeted cells. Accumulating evidence over the last decade has further revealed that exosomes can participate in multiple cellular processes contributing to cancer development and therapeutic effects, showing the dual characteristics of promoting and suppressing cancer. The potential of exosomes in the field of cancer immunotherapy is huge, and exosomes may become the most effective cancer vaccines, as well as targeted antigen/drug carriers. Understanding how exosomes can be utilized in immune therapy is important for controlling cancer progression; additionally, exosomes have implications for diagnostics and the development of novel therapeutic strategies. This review discusses the role of exosomes in immunotherapy as carriers to stimulate an anti-cancer immune response and as predictive markers for immune activation; furthermore, it summarizes the mechanism and clinical application prospects of exosome-based immunotherapy in human cancer.
Temozolomide (TMZ), an alkylating agent, is widely used for treating primary and recurrent high-grade gliomas. However, the efficacy of TMZ is often limited by the development of resistance. Recently, studies have found that TMZ treatment could induce autophagy, which contributes to therapy resistance in glioma. To enhance the benefit of TMZ in the treatment of glioblastomas, effective combination strategies are needed to sensitize glioblastoma cells to TMZ. In this regard, as autophagy could promote cell survival or autophagic cell death, modulating autophagy using a pharmacological inhibitor, such as chloroquine, or an inducer, such as rapamycin, has received considerably more attention. To understand the effectiveness of regulating autophagy in glioblastoma treatment, this review summarizes reports on glioblastoma treatments with TMZ and autophagic modulators from in vitro and in vivo studies, as well as clinical trials. Additionally, we discuss the possibility of using autophagy regulatory compounds that can sensitive TMZ treatment as a chemotherapy for glioma treatment.
electric vehicles. [1] LIBs with the conventional carbonaceous anode materials such as graphite have played a dominant role in the current market of customer electronics and electrical transportation. However, low capacity of carbonaceous anode materials (372 mAh g −1 ) also limits the further increase in energy densities of LIBs. [2] In this regard, silicon (Si)-based anode is considered as one of the most promising anode candidates in further boosting the specific energy of LIBs because Si has one of the highest practical capacity of 3579 mAh g −1 among various anode materials and a relatively low lithiation potential of 0.2 V versus Li/Li + . However, fast capacity fade and large swelling of Si anodes related to their large volume expansion (>300%) upon lithiation greatly hindered their deployment in practical applications. [3] There has been significant progress toward understanding and mitigating the capacity fade in Si-based anodes, including exploiting nanostructured Si materials, [4] porous structures, [5] surface coatings, [6] core-shell structures, [7] and novel binders. [8] However, the development of novel electrolytes for Si-based anodes is relatively slow because most researches have been focused on the structure development of Si electrodes. The conventional electrolytes for Si anodes are LiPF 6 /carbonate-based electrolytes with a certain amount of fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) as an additive or cosolvent (from 5% to 10% by weight in the electrolytes). [9] Linear carbonate solvents usually have relatively low flashpoints, so they are easily ignited and may lead to safety problems under certain extreme conditions. [10] In addition, the formed solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on anode surface in conventional carbonate electrolytes is unstable and cannot withstand the large volume changes of Si during cycling. Although the introduction of FEC in the conventional LiPF 6 / carbonate electrolytes can improve the cycling performance of Si anodes, increased amount of FEC may lead to increased gassing in full cells. Because such high content of FEC in the electrolytes may form a detrimental cathode electrolyte interface (CEI) on cathode surface and generate a serious gassing issue especially at high charge cutoff voltages and elevated temperatures, which lead to impedance increase, capacity fading and safety issue of the Si-based full cells. Therefore, the Silicon anodes are regarded as one of the most promising alternatives to graphite for high energy-density lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), but their practical applications have been hindered by high volume change, limited cycle life, and safety concerns. In this work, nonflammable localized highconcentration electrolytes (LHCEs) are developed for Si-based anodes. The LHCEs enable the Si anodes with significantly enhanced electrochemical performances comparing to conventional carbonate electrolytes with a high content of fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC). The LHCE with only 1.2 wt% FEC can further improve the long-term cycling stability of Si-base...
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