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C10.S1 C hinese students have excelled in many international assessments of mathematics achievement (e.g. Programme for International Student Assessment [PISA] and the Third International Mathematics and Science Study [TIMSS]), thereby drawing great interest from researchers, educators, and policy makers inside and outside the Chinese community. This chapter draws upon three strands of research (developmental, instructional, and social-psychological) cutting across three different levels (societal/cultural [macro, nation], institutional [meso/micro, family, classroom], and individual [nano]) to examine the ingredients that have shaped the mathematics achievements of Chinese students. The chapter starts by tracing the early numerical development of Chinese children before considering learning and instruction in Chinese mathematics classrooms. Next, it explores the broader sociocultural contexts in which the Chinese way of learning and teaching mathematics is rooted and supported. Finally, we depict a profile of Chinese students' achievements in mathematics against these backgrounds. The layers of description can help paint a richer understanding of Chinese students' mathematics achievement and its contexts. Before we turn to the specific discussions, it is important to indicate upfront that Chinese students here referred to are the groups of urban students from the mainland China, HKSAR, and Taiwan, as most of the referenced studies in the chapter involved students from Hong Kong, Taipei and several cities of mainland China (e.g. Beijing, Shanghai, Changchun, Guiyan, etc.). Numerical development of Chinese children in their early years Studies suggest that Chinese children and children of other countries show differences in mathematics achievement before they receive any formal school education (

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