The recurrent artery of Heubner (RAH) is the largest vessel of the medial lenticulostriate arteries. It supplies many deep structures, mainly the corpus striatum, the globus pallidus, and the anterior crus of the internal capsule. The aim of the present paper was studying the morphological variations of the RAH and its diameter in relation to different areas of origin. The series contained the records from 183 formalin-fixed adult human brains. The calibrated digital images of the studied brains were evaluated and measured by Image J, which can calculate the number of pixels and convert them to metric measures. The RAH arose most often from the postcommunicating part of the anterior cerebral artery (47.81%). It originated from the precommunicating part of the anterior cerebral artery in 3.55% and at the level of the anterior communicating artery in 43.4% of cases. The RAH was missing in 5.19% and doubled in 6.28% of cases. The mean outer diameter of the RAH was 0.6 mm. The maximal measured diameter was 1.34 mm, and the minimal diameter was 0.19 mm. The awareness of the various anatomical and morphometric variations of the RAH is essential in planning the neurosurgical procedures to avoid unexpected neurological complications.

An objective of our work was to clarify variations in pudendal nerve formation, as well as their possible impact on the clinical picture. Bilateral pudendal nerve course and formation was studied on 20 adult cadavers. Anterior approach was used in 15 of them, both posterior and anterior approaches were used in fi ve of them. The prefi xed type plexus formation was observed in eight cases (40 %). In these cases S 1 , S 2 roots contributed to the formation of the pudendal nerve. In the postfi xed type particularly the S 3 root was dominant in two cases (66.7 %), and less the S 4 root in one case (23.3 %) from three cases. Mostly the S 2 root participated in its formation in 17 cases (85 %). The pudendal nerve branches run below the sacrospinous ligament on the level of the sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments. The changes of the nerve and the branching therof were most evident from the anterior access below the sacrospinous ligament and in front of the sacrotuberous ligament. The inferior rectal nerve penetrating the sacrospinous ligament was seen in one case, it has risen from the pudendal nerve before entering the pudendal canal in four cases. The dorsal nerve of the penis has risen from the S 1 root in two cases (10 %). We observed its branching before entering the pudendal canal in 15 cases (75 %). It has divided in the pudendal canal in other cases. This description may be useful particularly for the pudendal nerve block and the nerve saving surgeries directed on the relevant region (Fig. 8 The pudendal nerve is one of the sacral plexus branches; originating from the anterior branches of S 2 to S 4 sacral nerves. It is the sensory and motor nerve of the perineum, innervating the external anal sphincter, urethral sphincter, perineal muscles and the skin (1-5).The main trunk of the pudendal nerve is formed proximally to the ischial spine, and medially and caudally to the sciatic nerve. It runs between the piriformis and coccygeus, medially to the pudendal vessels. Branches for the levator ani and coccygeus leave the pudendal nerve at the inferior margin of the piriformis. It then continues into the gluteal area through the greater sciatic foramen, and enters the pudendal canal through the lesser sciatic foramen.It runs behind the sacrospinous ligament and in front of the sacrotuberous ligament, then continues ventrocaudally into the perineal area, where it enters the pudendal canal (Alcock) formed by divided fascia of obturatorius internus. During its course it gives off inferior anal nerves and inferior rectal nerves respectively, which rise from the pudendal nerve just before entering the pudendal canal, or leave the pudendal canal and enter the proximal part of ischiorectal fossa; then they run through the fat and innervate the external anal sphincter and the skin around the anus (4, 5). Approximately in the centre of the pudendal canal it bifurcates into two branches -the perineal nerves and the dorsal nerve of the penis/clitoris. The perineal nerves serve for sensitive skin innervation of the...

Abstract:Background: The course of the brachial plexus, its relations with surrounding structures and unique primary and secondary divisions result in its wide range of anatomical variations. Most of these variations were detected during anatomical dissections and studies. It has been found that 53% of studied brachial plexuses contained variations. The communication between musculocutaneous and median nerves is the most common variation of infraclavicular part of brachial plexus. Methods: During gross anatomical dissections of peripheral nerves, we observed neuronatomical variations in upper limbs of four formalin embalmed adult cadavers. Musculocutaneous and median nerves were connected by a communicating branch at distinct level in each cadaver. The formation and relations of both nerves were noted in each case to exclude the existence of other anatomical variations. The connections were measured and documented by digital camera. Results: The communicating fi bers of variations 1 and 2 were located in the upper third of arm and proximally to musculocutaneous nerve penetration through coracobrachialis muscle. In variations 3 and 4, the communicating branch was situated in the lower third of arm and distal to the nerve penetration point. Conclusion: Variable interconnections between musculocutaneous and median nerve have to be considered in diagnosis of nerve lesions in axillary and arm regions. Compound musculocutaneous and median nerve neuropathy would occur in lesions of the interconnecting branches. Injuries of musculocutaneous nerve proximal to these branches can cause particular and unexpected symptoms, such as weakness of forearm fl exors and thenar muscles (Fig. 6 The brachial plexus is formed by the anterior rami of the cervical nerves C5-C8. It receives variable connections from the anterior rami of the fourth cervical nerve (C4) and the fi rst thoracic nerve (T1). The prefi xed type of the plexus is characterized by thick contributive nerve fi bers from C4 and thin or absent fi bers from T1. In the constitution of the postfi xed brachial plexus the fi rst two thoracic nerves (T1-T2) with absence of the nerve connection from C4 take part. The prefi xation of the plexus is more common than its postfi xation (1, 2).The roots of the plexus lie in the posterior cervical triangle between the anterior and middle scalene muscles. The nerve roots unite to form complex nerve network, from which the three primary trunks of the brachial plexus are branching: superior middle and inferior trunks. These are passing together with the subclavian artery under the clavicle and through the scalene gap. Each trunk is divided into anterior and posterior divisions. The lateral, medial and posterior cords of the plexus are formed by these divisions in the axillary fossa. The cords are named according to their relative position around the axillary artery (3, 4).From the topographical point of view the plexus is divided into supraclavicular and infraclavicular parts. The supraclavicular part gives off branches to innervate th...

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Omega-3 fatty acids (Ω3FA) are known to reduce hypertriglyceridemia- and inflammation-induced vascular wall diseases. However, mechanisms of their effects are not completely clear. We examined, whether 10-day Ω3FA diet can reduce bacterial lipopolysaccharide-induced changes in expression of gap junction protein connexin40 (Cx40) in the aorta of hereditary hypertriglyceridemic (hHTG) rats. After administration of a single dose of lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 1 mg/kg, i.p.) to adult hHTG rats, animals were fed with Ω3FA diet (30 mg/kg/day) for 10 days. LPS decreased Cx40 expression that was associated with reduced acetylcholine-induced relaxation of aorta. Ω3FA administration to LPS rats had partial anti-inflammatory effects, associated with increased Cx40 expression and improved endothelium dependent relaxation of the aorta. Our results suggest that 10-day Ω3FA diet could protect endothelium-dependent relaxation of the aorta of hHTG rats against LPS-induced damage through the modulation of endothelial Cx40 expression.