3D LIDAR imaging using Ge-on-Si single–photon avalanche diode detectors

Kuzmenko, Kateryna; Vines, Peter; Halimi, Abderrahim; Collins, Robert J.; Maccarone, Aurora; McCarthy, Aongus; Greener, Zoë M.; Kirdoda, Jarosław; Dumas, Derek C. S.; Llin, Lourdes Ferre; Mirza, Muhammad; Millar, Ross W.; Paul, Douglas J.; Buller, Gerald S.

doi:10.1364/oe.383243

Cited by 57 publications

(27 citation statements)

References 41 publications

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“…However, the move to 1550 nm wavelength comes at a cost when compared to silicon where there is a considerable legacy of materials and device optimisation. Single-photon detectors are now being developed for wavelengths around 1550 nm using Ge-on-Si [105], [106] which may reduce costs if markets stimulate mass production.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Full Waveform LiDAR for Adverse Weather Conditions

Wallace

Halimi

Buller

2020

IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol.

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100

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We present and discuss the case for full waveform pixel and image acquisition and processing to enable LiDAR sensors to penetrate and reconstruct 3D surface maps through obscuring media. To that end, we review work on signal propagation, on scanning and arrayed sensors, on signal processing strategies for independent pixels and employing spatial context, on reducing complexity and accelerating processing by sensor design, algorithmic changes, compressed sensing, and parallel processing. We report several experimental studies on LiDAR imaging through complex media, and how these can inform the automotive LiDAR scenario. We conclude with a discussion of future development and potential for full waveform LiDAR (FWL).

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Full Waveform LiDAR for Adverse Weather Conditions

Wallace

Halimi

Buller

2020

IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol.

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100

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“…The benefits are particularly useful in highly photon-starved environments such as those experienced in applications in biomedicine, for example, fluorescence lifetime imaging [ 8 ] or positron emission tomography [ 47 ], time-of-flight ranging, and LIDAR [ 48 ]. These types of lenses are likely to be of most benefit for use with CMOS-incompatible arrays [ 30 , 31 ] and novel device architectures such as Ge-on-Si SPADs [ 32 , 33 ], that operate in the short-wavelength infrared (SWIR) band. The ability of diffractive optics to operate as high-efficiency microconcentrators, without otherwise compromising performance across large-format arrays, makes this form of microlens a versatile and very high performance option for enhancement of low fill-factor detector arrays.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The ongoing development of CMOS-based SPAD technologies has led to wafer-level micro-optics becoming more common [ 26 – 29 ]; however, these processes are incompatible with non-CMOS-based devices. The development of short-wave infrared SPADs, such as InGaAs/InP arrays [ 30 , 31 ] and Ge-on-Si detectors [ 32 , 33 ], justifies the further developments of stand-alone micro-optics, which can be integrated post fabrication.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

High concentration factor diffractive microlenses integrated with CMOS single-photon avalanche diode detector arrays for fill-factor improvement

Connolly¹,

Ren²,

McCarthy³

et al. 2020

Appl. Opt.

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Large-format single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) arrays often suffer from low fill-factors—the ratio of the active area to the overall pixel area. The detection efficiency of these detector arrays can be vastly increased with the integration of microlens arrays designed to concentrate incident light onto the active areas and may be refractive or diffractive in nature. The ability of diffractive optical elements (DOEs) to efficiently cover a square or rectangular pixel, combined with their capability of working as fast lenses (i.e., 3 ) makes them versatile and practical lens designs for use in sparse photon applications using microscale, large-format detector arrays. Binary-mask-based photolithography was employed to fabricate fast diffractive microlenses for two designs of 32 32 SPAD detector arrays, each design having a different pixel pitch and fill-factor. A spectral characterization of the lenses is performed, as well as analysis of performance under different illumination conditions from wide- to narrow-angle illumination (i.e., 2 to 22 optics). The performance of the microlenses presented exceeds previous designs in terms of both concentration factor (i.e., increase in light collection capability) and lens speed. Concentration factors greater than 33 are achieved for focal lengths in the substrate material as short as 190 , representing a microlens f-number of 3.8 and providing a focal spot diameter of 4 . These results were achieved while retaining an extremely high degree of performance uniformity across the 1024 devices in each case, which demonstrates the significant benefits to be gained by the implementation of DOEs as part of an integrated detector system using SPAD arrays with very small active areas.

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“…Due to a relatively large diameter, however, the device exhibited a rather high DCR of 2 Mcps 25 . A planar geometry 100 μm diameter Ge-on-Si SPAD was subsequently utilized for laboratory-based-LiDAR experiments at short ranges which allowed modelling of performance under more realistic scenarios of operation 34 , clearly demonstrating the potential of these devices in 3D imaging applications.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

High efficiency planar geometry germanium-on-silicon single-photon avalanche diode detectors

Thorburn

Huddleston²,

Kirdoda

et al. 2020

Advanced Photon Counting Techniques XIV

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This paper presents the performance of 26 μm and 50 µm diameter planar Ge-on-Si single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detectors. The addition of germanium in these detectors extends the spectral range into the shortwave infrared (SWIR) region, beyond the capability of already well-established Si SPAD devices. There are several advantages for extending the spectral range into the SWIR region including: reduced eye-safety laser threshold, greater attainable ranges, and increased depth resolution in range finding applications, in addition to the enhanced capability to image through obscurants such as fog and smoke. The time correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) technique has been utilized to observe record low dark count rates, below 100 kHz at a temperature of 125 K for up to a 6.6 % excess bias, for the 26 µm diameter devices. Under identical experimental conditions, in terms of excess bias and temperature, the 50 µm diameter device consistently demonstrates dark count rates a factor of 4 times greater than 26 µm diameter devices, indicating that the dark count rate is proportional to the device volume. Single-photon detection efficiencies of up to ~ 29 % were measured at a wavelength of 1310 nm at 125 K. Noise equivalent powers (NEP) down to 9.8 × 10-17 WHz-1/2 and jitters < 160 ps are obtainable, both significantly lower than previous 100 μm diameter planar geometry devices, demonstrating the potential of these devices for highly sensitive and high-speed imaging in the SWIR.

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3D LIDAR imaging using Ge-on-Si single–photon avalanche diode detectors

Cited by 57 publications

References 41 publications

Full Waveform LiDAR for Adverse Weather Conditions

Full Waveform LiDAR for Adverse Weather Conditions

High concentration factor diffractive microlenses integrated with CMOS single-photon avalanche diode detector arrays for fill-factor improvement

High efficiency planar geometry germanium-on-silicon single-photon avalanche diode detectors

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