“…Rapid, inexpensive, and sensitive REE characterization techniques are needed both for resource exploration [e.g., locating REE-rich liquid streams such as acid mine drainage (AMD)] , and for characterizing downstream REE production steps, including the separation, purification, and concentration steps during REE processing. For example, scaled-up facilities have been developed, in which a series of solvent, acid/base, or bio-based , extraction and precipitation steps are used to isolate REEs from coal, , coal ash, ,, and AMD, , and high-performance analytical methods can be deployed to evaluate the efficiency of and make real-time adjustments to each production step. In particular, portable luminescence-based sensors are attractive because they offer up to 1000× higher sensitivity than competing portable techniques (e.g., X-ray fluorescence and laser-induced breakdown spectrometers) for REEs while providing significantly lower equipment and operating costs relative to inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, a nonportable technique. ,, Several of the REEs in particular are well suited for luminescence-based sensing techniques because they exhibit distinct, element-specific emission bands in the visible and near-infrared regions; these bands arise from f-orbital transitions that are shielded by the outer s- and p-orbitals, yielding narrow, line-like emission bands. − However, these transitions are parity forbidden, leading to poor absorption and inefficient direct excitation .…”