A changing environment of urban education: historical and spatial analysis of private supplementary tutoring in China

Abstract

Recent decades have brought dramatic urbanization to China. Between 1978 and 2018, the urban population rose from 17.9 per cent to 59.6 per cent of the total. Urbanization has many implications, including for education. China’s government has long been concerned about imbalances in access to and quality of schooling, and new imbalances have been introduced through market forces in the so-called shadow education sector of private supplementary tutoring, arising from both demand and supply. Urban families in particular seek private supplementary tutoring, and tutorial companies favour densely populated areas for higher enrolments. China has the world’s largest school system and most extensive shadow provision. This paper conceptualizes the space of shadow provision in educational, social and geographical terms. It highlights the changing scale and nature of private tutoring, observes the roles of new technologies and government regulations, notes the impact of COVID-19, and argues that shadow education both shapes and is shaped by urbanization.

Comparison of Factors Associated with Myopia among Middle School Students in Urban and Rural Regions of Anhui, China

“…Excessive academic burden has been identified as a serious problem for students in China 29–31 . Although the government's education units and schools are implementing measures to reduce the burden of learning from the school, learning from education supplementary tutoring has become very prominent 29,32 . Two recent surveys from urban areas in China indicated that more than half of the students surveyed had received supplementary tutoring of various types 33,34 .…”

“…[29][30][31] Although the government's education units and schools are implementing measures to reduce the burden of learning from the school, learning from education supplementary tutoring has become very prominent. 29,32 Two recent surveys from urban areas in China indicated that more than half of the students surveyed had received supplementary tutoring of various types. 33,34 All of these factors may increase the burden on the refractive system of the eye.…”

Modes and Trajectories of Shadow Education in Denmark and China: Fieldwork Reflections by a Comparativist

“…In China, the outbreak required the closure of face-to-face (offline) tutoring companies but gave a great boost to online companies. Thus, 2020 brought a wild expansion of online tutoring, which accelerated the digitalization and massification of shadow education and marked the latest stage of its institutionalization (Zhang & Bray, 2021). PPPs between tutoring companies and public institutions expanded, providing support to learning in response to disrupted schooling.…”

“…The overall proportion of MentorDanmark online activity did expand from 2%-3% before the pandemic to 11%-12% in mid-2021, but these figures showed that nearly 90% of families still preferred face-to-face. Thus, while in China the largest tutoring companies were busy expanding their market to lowertier cities through online tutoring (Zhang & Bray, 2021), MentorDanmark decided to serve social groups most needing help, and developed adventure programs beyond just private tutoring. The company created programs in reading and mathematics for special-needs students, and an experiential learning project in partnership with a zoo was initiated based on an integrated curriculum with the vision of education for sustainable development.…”

Learning from each other: Expanding and deepening international research on shadow education

“…The next article, by Peng, in some respects elaborates with a focus on social inequalities and shadow education in China. The country faces major issues of rural/urban imbalances that overlap with social imbalances (Zhang & Bray, 2021). Between 1978 and 2018, the urban population expanded from 17.9% of the total to 59.6% (China, National Bureau of Statistics, 2019).…”