Within the context of broad literature on cross-border flows for higher education, this article examines the distinctive case of mainland Chinese students in Hong Kong and Macau. These territories are a sort of bridge between the fully domestic and the fully international. Hong Kong and Macau higher education plays a dual role, as a destination in itself for higher education and as a stepping-stone for students' further international development. Patterns in Hong Kong are slightly different from those in Macau, and the territories may thus be usefully compared with each other as well as taken as a pair for comparison with other parts of the world. The paper begins by noting the literature on the ways that push and pull factors influence student mobility, and then turns to motivations in pursuit of academic and professional growth, economic benefit, individual internationalisation, and enhanced social status. The paper shows that flows of mainland Chinese students are driven by both excess and differentiated demand. Analysis of the distinctive features of this pair of territories adds to wider conceptual understanding of the nature of cross-border flows for higher education.

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Historians have shown that in some countries what is now widely called shadow education has distant origins. In Russia, for example, Mikhaylova (2019) identified advertisements by private supplementary tutors in the mid-19th century. In Greece, Tsiloglu (2005) documented the emergence of tutorial institutions known as frontistiria towards the end of the 19th century. In Japan, the parallel development of what are known as jukus since the beginning of the 20th century has been documented by Sato (2012); and in Mauritius, Foondun (2002, p. 488) quoted a 1901 comment about private supplementary tutoring by the head of what was then the only state secondary school for boys. However, only in the 1980s and 1990s did the theme begin to emerge as a specific topic in the