A Comparative Study of the Antibacterial, Antifungal and Antioxidant Activity and Total Content of Phenolic Compounds of Cell Cultures and Wild Plants of Three Endemic Species of Ephedra

Abstract

Investigations were carried out to determine antimicrobial and antioxidant properties and total phenol content of three wild species of Ephedra compared with their respective callus cultures. Callus induction was performed in a standard Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium with the following hormonal ranges (mg/L) for every species NAA:1.5, Kin:1 for Ephedra strobiliacea, NAA:2, Kin:1 for Ephedra procera and NAA:2, Kin:0.5 for Ephedra pachyclada. These ranges of PGPR (Plant Growth Promote Regulators) were chosen based on callus induction rates, RGR (Relative Growth Rate) and their fresh weights. An antimicrobial test against five Gram negative and two Gram positive bacteria and two fungi was performed using the disc diffusion method. All methanolic extracts showed antimicrobial activity, but the antimicrobial activity of the callus cultures was lower than those of the wild plants. E. strobilacea showed the highest antimicrobial activity, and all methanolic extracts of the wild plants and callus cultures unexpectedly showed the highest antimicrobial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. A FRAP (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power) test was conducted to evaluate extracts for antioxidant activity. E. strobilacea with 1.61 ± 0.08 mmol eq quercetin/g extract and 0.278 ± 0.02 mmol eq quercetin/g extract for the wild plant and callus, respectively, showed the highest results. The total phenol content of extracts was measured by a Folin Ciocalteau test. All the chosen species displayed phenol contents but E. strobilacea had the highest amount (504.9 ± 41.51 μmol eq catechin/g extracts and 114.61 ± 15.13 μmol eq catechin/g extracts for the wild plants and callus, respectively).

Antimicrobial Activity of Ephedra pachyclada Methanol Extract on Some Enteric Gram Negative Bacteria Which Causes Nosocomial Infections by Agar Dilution Method

“…In the past few years, several effects of Ephedra pachyclada extract on different bacteria have been reported. In 2010, Parsaismehr and his colleagues studied antibacterial effects of three species of Ephedra on Gram negative bacteria and unexpectedly observed that the most antimicrobial effect of these plant was on Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which corresponded with the results of the current study [15]. In 2009, Chi-hoon lee and colleagues examined antimicrobial effect of the Ephedra pachyclada plant on some intestinal bacteria, and observed that Ephedra pachyclada has antibacterial effect on some intestinal bacteria at 1 mg/mL concentration [19].…”

“…In Ephedra pachyclada plant; phenolic compounds have a crucial role in inhibitory activity of the hydroxyl groups on free radicals. Therefore, these phenolic compounds may be in direct relation with antioxidant activity of flavonoids and phenylpropanoids biosynthesis [15]. Also, several studies examined antimicrobial effects of Ephedra pachyclada plant on microorganisms.…”

“…Parsaeimehr et al examined antimicrobial effects of three species of Ephedra namely E. procera,E. strobiliacea, and E. pachyclada [15]. Azarnia and his colleagues studied protective effects of Ephedra pachyclada on animal models with hepatic disease [17].…”

Formulations, characterization, in vitro and ex vivo release of Ephedra extract from topical preparations using dialysis cellulose membrane and natural rabbit skin

“…They are found in the region of Iran, northwest India, and Pakistan (Balochistan). These shrub plants also showed antioxidant and antimicrobial activities (13)(14)(15). Ephedra basic compounds consist of the alkaloids E and PE and phenols (16).…”

Total Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Activity of Standardized Extracts from Leaves and Cell Cultures of Three Callistemon Species

“…In vitro cultures have the potential to form secondary metabolites and to exhibit bioactivity comparable to the original plant [4,5]. Cultured cells may serve industrial purposes, e.g.…”