A Comprehensive Review of Quantum Random Number Generators: Concepts, Classification and the Origin of Randomness

Abstract

Random numbers are central to cryptography and various other tasks. The intrinsic probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics has allowed us to construct a large number of quantum random number generators (QRNGs) that are distinct from the traditional true number generators. This article provides a review of the existing QRNGs with a focus on various possible features of QRNGs (e.g., self-testing, device independence, semi-device independence) that are not achievable on the classical world. It also discusses the origin, applicability, and other facets of randomness. Specifically, the origin of randomness is explored from the perspective of a set of hierarchical axioms for quantum mechanics, implying that succeeding axioms can be regarded as a superstructure constructed on top of a structure built by the preceding axioms. The axioms considered are: (Q1) incompatibility and uncertainty; (Q2) contextuality; (Q3) entanglement; (Q4) nonlocality and (Q5) indistinguishability of identical particles. Relevant toy generalized probability theories (GPTs) are introduced, and it is shown that the origin of random numbers in different types of QRNGs known today are associated with different layers of nonclassical theories and all of them do not require all the features of quantum mechanics. Further, classification of the available QRNGs has been done and the technological challenges associated with each class is critically analyzed. Commercially available QRNGs are also compared.

Quantum and Semi-Quantum Lottery: Strategies and Advantages

“…also be realized in a non-classical toy theory [64] which has only the feature of uncertainty relations between incompatible observables. This is similar to the availability of a wide variety of practical QKD systems [32,33] and quantum random number generators [36,38] with different levels of security aspects. The unconditional security can be derived from the use of only 'incompatibility and uncertainty' feature of quantum mechanics, but the device independence security can be derived only through the use of features such as 'entanglement' and 'non-locality'.…”

“…Since quantum mechanics has intrinsic randomness associated with it [34], so the quantum systems can be used to generate truly random numbers [35]. Currently, the quantum technology is quite mature that we can generate very high quality random numbers at great speeds [36,37,38,39] for a wide variety of applications including secure communication, e-commerce, multi-party computations and lottery. In fact, there are many commercial quantum random number generator (QRNG) devices available in the market such as ID Quantique [40], Toshiba [41], PicoQuant [42], MPD [43] etc.…”

Anonymous voting scheme using quantum assisted blockchain

“…Hence, such a simple scheme can be used to generate a true random number sequence. Currently, there are various ways via which the true random numbers can be generated using the optical devices as well as other implementations with many commercially available products too [30,50]. The generation rates of the random numbers can vary for the devices but it can go to the order of Gbps.…”

“…Interestingly, we can have semi self testing QRNGs which have good credibility as well as better generation rates [12,51]. Currently, there are many off the shelf commercial trusted QRNGs [36,50], such as ID Quantique, Toshiba, PicoQuant, qStream with excellent generation speeds, while the self testing and semi self testing devices are still at the experimental stages.…”

Extracting More Quantum Randomness With Non-Uniform Quantization

“…Different from the PRNG, true random number generators (TRNGs) extract randomness from physical random process [5]. As an important type of TRNGs, the QRNG [27] is based on the intrinsic randomness of fundamental quantum processes including quantum phase fluctuations [6]- [10], photon arrival times [11]- [13], stimulated Raman scattering [14], vacuum fluctuations [15], [16], spontaneous emission noise [17]- [19] and photon polarization state [20], [21].…”