A Comprehensive Review of Spirit Drink Safety Standards and Regulations from an International Perspective

Abstract

Standards and regulations related to spirit drinks have been established by different countries and international organizations to ensure the safety and quality of spirits. Here, we introduce the principles of food safety and quality standards for alcoholic beverages and then compare the key indicators used in the distinct standards of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, the European Union, the People's Republic of China, the United States, Canada, and Australia. We also discuss in detail the "maximum level" of the following main contaminants of spirit drinks: methanol, higher alcohols, ethyl carbamate, hydrocyanic acid, heavy metals, mycotoxins, phthalates, and aldehydes. Furthermore, the control measures used for potential hazards are introduced. Harmonization of the current requirements based on comprehensive scope analysis and the risk assessment approach will enhance both the trade and quality of distilled spirits. This review article provides valuable information that will enable producers, traders, governments, and researchers to increase their knowledge of spirit drink safety requirements, control measures, and research trends.

Development of a Spirit Drink Produced with Strawberry Tree (Arbutus unedo L.) Fruit and Honey

“…Among these factors, the timely and correct separation of the distillation fractions ("heads", "heart", and "tails") during the distillation process is of utmost importance for the volatile profile and, therefore, for the quality of the final product [4][5][6]. In this context, considerable attention has been devoted to the methanol concentration, resulting from the de-methylesterification of pectins, catalyzed by pectin methylesterases existing in the fruit [9], because of its harmful effect on human health, which is mainly associated with acute toxicity [10]. According to the European regulation on spirit drinks [11], the methanol concentration of arbutus spirit must be lower than 1000 g/hL of pure alcohol (P.A.).…”

An overview of chemical contaminants and other undesirable chemicals in alcoholic beverages and strategies for analysis

“…Beer, wine, and spirits ND to 15 (beer); ND to 326 (wine); ND to 600 spirits Donadini et al, 2008;IARC, 2010;Iavicoli et al, 2009;Pang et al, 2017;Pflaum et al, 2016;UNEP, 2013 Pesticides Wine and beer ND to 28.12 (wine); 0.1 to 11.57 (beer) Bogdanova et al, 2018;IARC, 2010;Nigussie et al, 2018;Nistor et al, 2017;Peters et al, 2017 Aflatoxin B2…”

“…Soil and water may contain toxic trace metals that occur naturally or stem from pollution, as well as pesticides, organic pollutants, and other products of human activity (Tadeo, Sánchez‐Brunete, Albero, & García‐Valcárcel, 2010). Several trace metals, including copper, cadmium, and lead, have been found in alcohol products, as well as benzene and various phthalates (Cao, 2010; Chatonnet, Boutou, & Plana, 2014; Pang, Li, Chen, Gao, & Han, 2017) that have become ubiquitous in the environment due to their persistent nature and widespread usage (Cao, 2010). It has been reported by the WHO that phthalates and related compounds have been detected in groundwater and treated tap water (WHO, 2003), and studies have additionally noted its presence in soil and plant samples (Müller & Kördel, 1993), as well as in agricultural products—including grapes (Chen et al., 2017; Gunther & Gunther, 2012).…”

“…Wine is also a possible source of fungal toxins stemming from grapes. Ochratoxin, aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1, HT2 toxin, and patulin residues have been found in wines (He et al., 2019; IARC, 2010; Pang et al., 2017; Pflaum et al., 2016), with OTA being the most common problem, particularly in sweet red wines (Gil‐Serna, Vázquez, González‐Jaén, & Patiño, 2018). Similar to pesticides, the fermentation, clarification, and filtration steps are expected to effectively reduce the mycotoxin content, though evidently there are cases where the final level is still above detectable levels (Gil‐Serna et al., 2018).…”

Emerging Technologies Based on Artificial Intelligence to Assess the Quality and Consumer Preference of Beverages

“…Beverages are often classified into three main categories: (i) Alcoholic drinks, (ii) hot drinks, and (iii) non-alcoholic drinks. Alcoholic drinks (i) refer to those beverages that are composed of a minimum alcohol content, which varies according to the regulations from each country; examples from this category include beer, wine, and spirits [1]. The hot drinks group (ii) is mainly composed of coffee, tea and hot chocolate [2].…”