A meta-analysis on gender differences in negotiation outcomes and their moderators.

Abstract

This meta-analysis investigates gender differences in economic negotiation outcomes. As suggested by role congruity theory, we assume that the behaviors that increase economic negotiation outcomes are more congruent with the male as compared with the female gender role, thereby presenting challenges for women's negotiation performance and reducing their outcomes. Importantly, this main effect is predicted to be moderated by person-based, situation-based, and task-based influences that make effective negotiation behavior more congruent with the female gender role, which should in turn reduce or even reverse gender differences in negotiation outcomes. Using a multilevel modeling approach, this meta-analysis includes 123 effect sizes (overall N = 10,888, including undergraduate and graduate students as well as businesspeople). Studies were included when they enabled the calculation of an effect size reflecting gender differences in achieved economic negotiation outcomes. As predicted, men achieved better economic outcomes than women on average, but gender differences strongly depended on the context: Moderator analysis revealed that gender differences favoring men were reduced when negotiators had negotiation experience, when they received information about the bargaining range, and when they negotiated on behalf of another individual. Moreover, gender differences were reversed under conditions of the lowest predicted role incongruity for women. In conclusion, gender differences in negotiations are contextually bound and can be subject to change. Future research is needed that investigates the underlying mechanisms of new moderators revealed in the current research (e.g., experience). Implications for theoretical explanations of gender differences in negotiation outcomes, for gender inequalities in the workplace, and for future research are discussed.

A social-cognitive approach to understanding gender differences in negotiator ethics: The role of moral identity

“…Although women are disadvantaged in negotiations by negative stereotypes (Kray et al, 2001) and in terms of economic performance under some conditions (Mazei et al, 2015), the current work suggests that at times, women have an ethical advantage at the bargaining table relative to their male counterparts. Additionally, we find that women's stronger moral identities only translate into more ethical behavior when financial incentives do not promote the use of deception, suggesting chronic gender differences in moral identity interact with contextual cues to predict bargaining behavior.…”

“…To the extent that unethical tactics are perceived to provide an advantage over competitors, men may therefore be especially likely to use them when negotiating, whereas women may be less inclined to rely on unethical tactics. Practically, because unethical tactics can help negotiators to claim value (O'Connor & Carnevale, 1997;Schweitzer, DeChurch, & Gibson, 2005), gender differences in negotiator ethics may provide a novel explanation for why women have worse negotiation outcomes than men under some conditions (Mazei et al, 2015;Stuhlmacher & Walters, 1999). Alternatively, to the extent that women negotiators have ethical strengths, women may have a negotiating advantage over men under certain conditions, such as when relational capital and subjective value are important (Kennedy & Kray, 2015).…”

A pawn in someone else's game?: The cognitive, motivational, and paradigmatic barriers to women's excelling in negotiation

“…In the first section, we review key findings from two decades of research on gender in negotiation to determine whether and when the playing field is level. In light of recent theoretical and empirical reviews of this research area (Bowles & McGinn, 2008;Mazei et al, 2015;Stuhlmacher & Walters, 1999), our aim is simply to identify areas of consensus around whether a gender gap exists and under what circumstances. To preview this analysis, the evidence suggests that advising and training women to become better negotiators is a necessary but insufficient condition for altering gendered career outcomes.…”

“…When faced with the task of negotiating a favorable deal with another party, men tend to receive better outcomes than women. Two meta-analyses have systematically measured this gender difference (Mazei et al, 2015;Stuhlmacher & Walters, 1999). In the earlier study, the effect sizes were small (Stuhlmacher & Walters, 1999), but in the more recent paper with a larger sample, 59% of the effect sizes were medium to large (Mazei et al, 2015).…”

“…In negotiation, women often behave differently than men only when there is ambiguity about what behavior is appropriate (Bowles et al, 2005;Kennedy et al, 2015;Kray & Gelfand, 2009;Mazei et al, 2015;Miles & LaSalle, 2009). Mixed-gender interactions could be more uncertain than same-gender interactions (Goncalo, Chatman, Duguid, & Kennedy, 2014).…”