A modified cholera holotoxin CT-E29H enhances systemic and mucosal immune responses to recombinant Norwalk virus–virus like particle vaccine

Identification of Cross-Reactive Norovirus CD4 + T Cell Epitopes

“…ϩ IFN-␥ responses in Peyer's patches and spleen (22,26). Induction of CD8 ϩ T cells and secretion of the TH2 cytokine IL-4 were separately noted; however, it is unclear if these responses were influenced by VLPs or the coadministered vaccine adjuvants (22,26).…”

Antibody Is Critical for the Clearance of Murine Norovirus Infection

“…In humans, several studies have focused on antibody production in response to inoculation with norovirus viruslike particles (VLPs) assembled in the absence of viral replication by expression of viral capsid proteins (1,2,15,41,(44)(45)(46)(47). These VLPs share epitopes with virions but do not carry viral genome (14,21).…”

“…High doses of VLPs administered intranasally or perorally (p.o. ), with or without adjuvants such as cholera toxin or Escherichia coli labile toxin, induced mucosal IgA and serum IgG in human volunteers, calves, pigs, and mice (1,2,15,16,19,41,(44)(45)(46)(47). The antibody responses that are elicited following infection with noroviruses are cross-reactive between strains within the same genogroup, but much less cross-reactive between strains from different genogroups (20,21,27).…”

Norovirus vaccines: Correlates of protection, challenges and limitations

“…72,87 Similarly, the intranasal delivery of VLPs in BALB/c mice induced humoral and cellular specific responses. 88 These studies provided the proof of concept that mucosal administration of VLP-based vaccines can generate protective responses in animal models. Moreover, these studies experimented with the inclusion of different adjuvants to assess their effect on the generated immune responses.…”