“…Unfortunately, the associated research streams have produced findings that conflict with each other, making it difficult to formulate hypotheses (see, for example, Berlyne, 1971Berlyne, , 1974bBoselie, 1991;Eysenck, 1988;Martindale, Moore, & Borkum, 1990;Messinger, 1998). Veryzer (1999) and Dixon (1988) suggest that the field is in a pre-theory state and needs more empirical study to advance the theory upon which hypotheses can be based. Empirical research to date has largely been experimental in nature, used few stimuli, and studied few stimulus characteristics.…”