“…These reviews suggest that noninstitutional interventions for juvenile criminality can have negative effects (Petrosino et al, 2013), no clear effects (Littell, 2005; Markham, 2018; Weisman & Montgomery, 2019; Wilson et al, 2005), or modest positive effects (Hartnett et al, 2017; Tolan et al, 2013; van der Pol et al, 2017; van der Stouwe et al, 2014; Wilson et al, 2017; Wilson & Lipsey, 2000). In some cases, however, the evidence regarding intervention effectiveness is unclear or contradictory (e.g., Hartnett et al, 2017; Littell, 2005; Markham, 2018; van der Stouwe et al, 2014; Weisman & Montgomery, 2019; Wilson et al, 2017). General to this line of research is that few studies or reviews investigated intervention effects on recidivism among youth with one or more prior criminal offense as most reviews included wider at-risk populations (e.g., youth with school problems, behavior problems, or substance abuse).…”