A Review of Properties of Nanocellulose, Its Synthesis, and Potential in Biomedical Applications

Abstract

Cellulose is the most venerable and essential natural polymer on the planet and is drawing greater attention in the form of nanocellulose, considered an innovative and influential material in the biomedical field. Because of its exceptional physicochemical characteristics, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and high mechanical strength, nanocellulose attracts considerable scientific attention. Plants, algae, and microorganisms are some of the familiar sources of nanocellulose and are usually grouped as cellulose nanocrystal (CNC), cellulose nanofibril (CNF), and bacterial nanocellulose (BNC). The current review briefly highlights nanocellulose classification and its attractive properties. Further functionalization or chemical modifications enhance the effectiveness and biodegradability of nanocellulose. Nanocellulose-based composites, printing methods, and their potential applications in the biomedical field have also been introduced herein. Finally, the study is summarized with future prospects and challenges associated with the nanocellulose-based materials to promote studies resolving the current issues related to nanocellulose for tissue engineering applications.

Effect of Cellulose Nanofibers’ Structure and Incorporation Route in Waterborne Polyurethane–Urea Based Nanocomposite Inks

“…It is a linear homopolymer composed of D-glucose units bonded together by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Cellulose nano-entities were extensively studied [ 13 , 14 , 15 ] and, among many other uses, have shown good potential as rheological modulators for DIW. Vadillo et al [ 16 , 17 ] studied the effect of the content and addition method of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) to a PCL–PEG-based WBPUU matrix and observed that CNC were able to modulate rheological behavior improving the printability of the inks.…”

Sponges from Plasma Treated Cellulose Nanofibers Grafted with Poly(ethylene glycol)methyl Ether Methacrylate

“…Nanocellulose is widely considered an advantageous material in a plethora of applications, as it is non-toxic, biodegradable, highly biocompatible, and offers excellent mechanical strength [ 1 ]. The high number of hydroxyl groups leads to strong hydrogen interactions between nanofibrils and plays a key role in the properties of nanocellulose.…”

Bacterial Cellulose-Based Polymer Nanocomposites: A Review

“…A series of novel polysaccharide-based biocomposites was obtained by impregnation of BC produced by K. rhaeticus with the solutions of negatively charged polysaccharides such as hyaluronan, sodium alginate, or carrageenan, and subsequently with positively charged chitosan [ 134 ]. In addition, BC composites with biomolecules such as antibiotics, enzymes, hormones, peptides, amino acids and cells were obtained [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ].…”

“…Different forms of cellulose (C) are available, such as nano crystals (CNCs), nano fibers (CNFs), nano whiskers (CNWs), microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), and bacterial cellulose (BC) or bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. All these forms have been successfully employed in various fields, and can be easily functionalized due to the presence of bulk–OH groups on cellulose backbone to obtain the materials of desired properties [ 6 , 7 , 8 ].…”

“…Due to its unique properties, BC is a promising material for industry and technology [ 18 ]. It has great potential to be used in medicine [ 4 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ] as a biomaterial for tissue engineering [ 20 , 23 , 24 ], wound dressing [ 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ] and drug delivery systems [ 5 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ], it can be applied in electronics (sensors, energy storage devices, speakers, acoustic membranes) [ 33 ], the environmental industry (water purification, filtration and adsorption techniques) [ 34 , 35 ], and the food industry (artificial food, additives, food packaging [ 36 ]. The relatively large diversity of cellulose-producing microorganisms, as well as a wide variety of cultivation methods, creates an excellent opportunity to modify and adjust the properties of the material and find new areas of its application.…”