A risk assessment of atrazine use in California: human health and ecological aspects

Abstract

A risk assessment of the triazine herbicide atrazine has been conducted by first analyzing the toxicity database and subsequently estimating exposure. Margins of safety (MOS) were then calculated. Toxicity was assessed in animal studies and exposure was estimated from occupational and dietary sources. In acute toxicity studies, atrazine caused developmental toxicity in the rabbit [no observed effect level (NOEL) 5 mg kg(-1) day(-1)] and cardiotoxicity in a dog chronic study (NOEL 0.5 mg kg(-1) day(-1)); cancer (mammary glands) resulted from lifetime exposure. The mammary tumors, which occurred specifically in female Sprague-Dawley rats, were malignant, increased in a dose-dependent manner and were also observed with other, related triazines. Evidence for a genotoxic basis for these tumors was either equivocal or negative. Triazines have been shown to be clastogenic in Chinese hamster ovary cells, in vitro, but without showing a convincing dose/response relationship. Atrazine can be converted into genotoxic N-nitrosoatrazine in the environment or the digestive system, suggesting that N-nitrosamines derived from triazines could be oncogenic. However, it was concluded that N-nitrosotriazines are unlikely to play a significant role in triazine-induced rat mammary gland tumors. An endocrine basis for the mammary tumors, involving premature aging of the female SD rat reproductive system, has been proposed. A suppression of the luteinizing hormone surge during the estrus cycle by atrazine leads to the maintenance of elevated blood levels of 17beta-estradiol (E2) and prolactin. The mechanism for tumor development may include one or more of the following: the induction of aromatase (CYP19) and/or other P450 oxygenases, an antagonist action at the estrogen feedback receptor in the hypothalamus, an agonist action at the mammary gland estrogen receptor or an effect on adrenergic neurons in the hypothalamic-pituitary pathway. None of these has been excluded as a target because there has been a lack of a rigorous attempt to address the mechanism of action for mammary tumors at the molecular level. The potential occupational exposure to atrazine was assessed during mixing, loading and application. Absorbed daily dosage values were 1.8-6.1 microg kg(-1) day(-1). The MOS values (animal NOEL/human exposure) for short-term (acute) exposure were 820-2800. Longer-term occupational exposure and risk were also calculated. Detectable crop residues are generally absent at harvest. Theoretical calculations of acute dietary exposure used tolerance levels, along with secondary residues, and water, for which there is a maximum contamination level; atrazine plus the three main chlorotriazine metabolites were combined. MOS values were above 2000 for all population subgroups. Dietary exposure to atrazine is therefore extremely unlikely to result in human health hazard. Recent publications have reported a possible feminization of frogs, measured in laboratory and field studies. This is assumed to be due to the induction of aromatase, but no meas...

Determination of Atrazine and Simazine in Environmental Water Samples by Dispersive Liquid–Liquid Microextraction with High Performance Liquid Chromatography

“…Triazine herbicides were often used especially in the United States. 1,2 As important triazine herbicides, atrazine and simazine have been heavily used in maize cultivation and forestry, respectively. They have relatively low absorption in soil and would migrate along the food chains, and their heavy use and presence in the environment have posed a health threat to human beings.…”

Effect of Few Parameters on Removal of Atrazine from Waste Water

“…Atrazine is reported to be a suspected carcinogen and possible endocrine disrupter (Takacs et al, 2002). Potential effect of atrazine on pregnant women and young children has been also reported (Gammon et al, 2005). It has a long-term effect on hormones, the immune system and reproduction.…”

“…All other conditions were same as section 3.5.2. Samples were withdrawn at 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 3,4,5,6,8,10,12,14,16,20 and 24 hrs and analysed for residual atrazine concentration. The percentage removal of atrazine was plotted with time.…”

Toxicity of Herbicides: Impact on Aquatic and Soil Biota and Human Health

“…According to Gammon et al [83], some publications have reported a possible feminization of frogs, both in laboratorial assays and field studies. This effect is mainly due to the action of the enzyme aromatase; however, published research not shown the measures of this enzyme.…”