461Review & inteRpRetation G lobally, weeds are one of the main reasons causing yield loss in crops; in fact, the potential yield loss due to weeds is much higher than from other pests (Oerke, 2006). Herbicides have been used as a simple and reliable technology for weed control. However, intensive and injudicious use of herbicides has resulted in widespread evolution of herbicide-resistant weeds. Worldwide, 218 weed species have evolved herbicide resistance in many agro-ecosystems (Heap, 2013). This has implications for global agricultural productivity.The major factors that influence the evolutionary dynamics of herbicide resistance can be broadly classified into biological, genetic, and operational ( Jasieniuk et al., 1996;Roux and Reboud, 2007). The seed production, seed dormancy, longevity of seeds, mating system (self-pollinating/outcrossing), and migration distance of seed or pollen are the major biological factors that determine the pace of herbicide resistance evolution (Roux and Reboud, 2007). Among the genetic factors, the initial frequency of resistance genes in the population, type of inheritance (dominance or recessive), and fitness cost (selective disadvantage) or advantage of resistance alleles in the presence or absence of herbicide are very crucial (Roux and Reboud, 2007). The spatial and temporal factors related to herbicide application are covered ABSTRACT recent studies have shown the potential of lower than recommended herbicide rates to enhance the herbicide resistance level of a troublesome weed, annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum Gaud.). rapid evolution of herbicide resistance was possible, because low herbicide rates could select for minor traits and their accumulation through cross-pollination. These studies are highly relevant for the reason that low herbicide rates prevail in global agriculture-particularly in Australia, where recommended herbicide rates are the lowest in the world. In addition, growers use lower than recommended rates for economic reasons and there is no bio-regulatory authority to control the use of herbicides. Indeed, low herbicide rate alone would not lead to rapid evolution of herbicide resistance, but its interaction with the genetic and biological potential of a target weed species is also crucial to decide the pace of herbicide resistance evolution. Alarmingly, L. rigidum is genetically highly variable and possesses many biological and genetic attributes that aid this species to augment resistance mechanisms to combat the never-ending herbicide selection pressure. In this review, the biological and genetic potential of this cross-pollinating species to evolve as one of the most troublesome weeds is examined. In that way, this review would be a practical lesson to frame future herbicide resistance management strategies for troublesome weeds in global agriculture. A diversified herbicide-use pattern and integration of appropriate nonchemical methods are envisaged to minimize the pace of herbicide resistance evolution. Another important message is that herbicides sho...