A survey of elephant husbandry and foot health in North American zoos

Abstract

The foot health of elephants in human care is a longstanding concern. In 2001, the AZA Standards for Elephant Management and Care were published recommending husbandry to improve foot health. This article reports the results of a 2006 survey: basic statistics describing facility, husbandry, and foot health attributes are reported and relationships among variables are investigated. Median area available to elephants exceeded Standard recommendations (755 ft(2) per elephant indoor and 10,000 ft(2) outdoor). Concrete makes up 69% of indoor area and natural substrates account for 85% of outdzoor area. Elephants in AZA facilities received an average of 45.5 min/day of exercise, and facilities with a structured exercise plan provided significantly more exercise than did facilities without a structured exercise plan (z=-2.522, P=0.012). Enrichment is important to psychological health and may also stimulate activity beneficial to foot health; 95% of institutions had a structured enrichment program. Preventative foot care was nearly universal, and 100% of facilities performed routine nail and pad trimming. However, foot pathology has not been eradicated; 33% of institutions reported at least one pathology in the previous year. This study found a strong inverse relationship between foot pathology and exercise (chi(2)(3)=24.34, P<0.001). Younger herds were less likely to have a member diagnosed with arthritis (chi(2)(1)=8.90, P=0.003). Lameness was unrelated to age or pathology, and only the presence of arthritis explained lameness (z=-7.81, P<0.001). African elephants seemed to experience lower rates of foot pathology and arthritis than Asian elephants; however, this was explained by differences in age.

Skeletal pathology and variable anatomy in elephant feet assessed using computed tomography

“…Accurate diagnosis is challenging, treatment is expensive and time-consuming (Lewis et al, 2010) and chronic unresponsive conditions of the feet are a major reason for euthanasia in captivity (Csuti, Sargent & Bechert, 2008). …”

“…Some foot problems are visible externally (e.g., solar pad or cuticle lesions), do not require diagnostic imaging, and seem to be improving with the near-universal adoption of daily examination and foot care routines in elephants (Lewis et al, 2010). However, other pathological lesions—particularly those affecting the osseous structures—are challenging to identify and monitor.…”

“…Lameness is not always an obvious feature in elephants with foot problems (Lewis et al, 2010), and radiography of the distal limb has been described to diagnose and monitor foot problems (e.g., Hittmair & Vielgrader, 2000; Siegal-Willott et al, 2008; Kaulfers et al, 2010; Mumby et al, 2013). Over the recent years advanced imaging modalities such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been more commonly used in veterinary practice for musculoskeletal and other problems, but their use for elephants is precluded by body size and transport issues.…”

Development of a Body Condition Scoring Index for Female African Elephants Validated by Ultrasound Measurements of Subcutaneous Fat

“…One problem in zoo elephants is poor foot health and arthritis [5], [6], [11], [12], with a strong inverse relationship existing between foot pathology and levels of exercise [12]. Ovarian acyclicity also is a serious reproductive problem in captive African elephants, and a previous study found a relationship between a high body mass index and ovarian acyclicity in this species [13].…”

“…Ovarian acyclicity also is a serious reproductive problem in captive African elephants, and a previous study found a relationship between a high body mass index and ovarian acyclicity in this species [13]. Circumstantial evidence suggests there may be a link between obesity-related changes and poor health and reproduction in elephants [5], [6], [12].…”