A survey of Layer-two blockchain protocols

Gangwal, Ankit; Gangavalli, Haripriya Ravali; Thirupathi, Apoorva

doi:10.1016/j.jnca.2022.103539

Cited by 61 publications

(20 citation statements)

References 15 publications

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“…Layer2 includes technologies such as Lightning networking, Plasma, Rollups, etc. which ease transaction processing on Layer1 by moving transactions from Layer1 to Layer2 (Gangwal et al, 2020). Layer2 solves the problems faced by Layer1 by increasing scalability and processing speed.…”

Section: Inventing Emerging Technologiesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Entangling knowledge search and innovation targets for inventing emerging technologies: the case for blockchain technology

Huang

Dong

et al. 2023

IMDS

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PurposeWhile the growth of emerging technologies like Blockchain has created significant market opportunities and economic incentives for firms, it is valuable for both researchers and practitioners to understand their creation mechanisms. This paper aims to discuss the aforementioned objective.Design/methodology/approachBased on the knowledge search perspective, this study examines the impact of search boundary on innovation novelty and quality. Additionally, innovation targets, namely R&D innovation and application innovation, are proposed as the moderator of the knowledge search effect. Using a combination of machine learning algorithms such as natural language processing and classification models, the authors propose new methods to measure the identified concepts.FindingsThe empirical results of 3,614 Blockchain patents indicate that search boundary enhances both innovation novelty and innovation quality. For R&D innovation, the positive impact of search boundary on innovation quality is enhanced, whereas for application innovation, the positive effect of search boundary on innovation novelty is improved.Originality/valueThis study mainly contributes to the growing literature on emerging technologies by describing their creation mechanisms. Specifically, the exploration of R&D and application taxonomy enriches researchers' understanding of knowledge search in the context of Blockchain invention.

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Section: Inventing Emerging Technologiesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Entangling knowledge search and innovation targets for inventing emerging technologies: the case for blockchain technology

Huang

Dong

et al. 2023

IMDS

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

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“…This is not a technical limitation, but a policy option: If end users were allowed to access the Layer 1 blockchain to freely open channels among them, the level of privacy of payments would quickly approach full anonimity 5. These regulated entities are the points where AML/CFT activities can be performed, possibly issuing Suspect Transactions Reports (STRs) to the CB.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Black-it: A Ready-to-Use and Easy-to-Extend Calibration Kit for Agent-based Models

Benedetti¹,

Catapano²,

Sclavis³

et al. 2022

JOSS

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“…Most such solutions are generally referred to as Layer-1 approaches, as they make changes to how the underlying blockchain works and require a hard fork. These solutions can mainly be categorized into three types [36]:…”

Section: Layer-1 Solutionsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…This will in turn reduce the load on the layer-1 blockchain itself, resulting in a lower transaction fee through lower gas usage. We provide a summary of prominent layer-2 solutions following [36].…”

Section: Layer-2 Solutionsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…There are two prominent types of side-chains: custodial and non-custodial. Custodial side-chains rely on their own consensus mechanisms, while non-custodial side-chains secure their state on the main chain [36]. Rollups are currently the most practical and promising side-chain design approach, and will be discussed in greater detail below.…”

Section: Side-chains and Rollupsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Lazy contracts : alleviating high gas costs by secure and trustless off-chain execution of smart contracts

Farokhnia

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Smart contracts are programs that are executed on the blockchain and can hold, manage and transfer assets in the form of cryptocurrencies. Any party can interact with a smart contract by creating blockchain transactions that call the desired functions of the contract. The contract's execution is then performed on-chain and is subject to consensus, i.e. every node on the blockchain network has to run the function calls and keep track of their sideeffects, including updates to the variables in the contract's storage, as well as transfers of cryptocurrency in and out of the contract. In most programmable blockchains, such as Ethereum, the notion of gas is introduced to prevent DoS attacks by malicious parties who might try to slow down the network by performing time-consuming and resource-heavy computations. A fixed gas cost is assigned to every atomic operation and the originator of a function call has to pay the total gas cost of all its operations as a transaction fee. While the gas model has largely succeeded in its goal of avoiding DoS attacks, the resulting fees are extremely high. For example, in 2022, on Ethereum alone, there has been a total gas usage of 1.77 Million ETH ≈ 4.3 Billion USD. This thesis proposes "lazy contracts" as a solution to alleviate these costs. Our solution moves most of the computation off-chain, ensuring that each function call incurs only a tiny amount of gas usage, while preserving enough data on-chain to guarantee an implicit consensus about the state of the contract variables and ownership of funds. A complete on-chain execution of the functions will only be triggered in case two parties to the contract are in disagreement about the current state, which in turn can only happen if at least one party is dishonest. In such cases, our protocol can identify the dishonest party and penalize them by having them pay for the entire gas usage. In short, using our protocol, no rational party has an incentive to act dishonestly and only dishonest parties have to ix pay the full gas cost of the contract. If all parties are rational and therefore honest, the total gas usage of the contract shrinks dramatically.Additionally, we provide an implementation of our protocol as a wrapper that can be applied to any smart contract before its deployment on the blockchain. Although we focus on Ethereum contracts written in Solidity, the same technique can is also applicable to any other programmable blockchain. Finally, we perform extensive experiments over 160,735 real-world Solidity contracts that were involved in 9,055,492 transactions in January 2022-January 2023 on Ethereum and show that our approach reduces the overall gas usage by 55.4%, which amounts to an astounding saving of 109.9 Million USD in gas fees.x

show abstract

A survey of Layer-two blockchain protocols

Cited by 61 publications

References 15 publications

Entangling knowledge search and innovation targets for inventing emerging technologies: the case for blockchain technology

Entangling knowledge search and innovation targets for inventing emerging technologies: the case for blockchain technology

Black-it: A Ready-to-Use and Easy-to-Extend Calibration Kit for Agent-based Models

Lazy contracts : alleviating high gas costs by secure and trustless off-chain execution of smart contracts

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