A Systematic Scoping Review of Human-Dog Interactions in Virtual and Augmented Reality: The Use of Virtual Dog Models and Immersive Equipment

Abstract

Virtual reality is beneficial from a research and education perspective as it allows the assessment of participants in situations that would otherwise be ethically and practically difficult or impossible to study in the real world. This is especially the case where the assessment of human behaviour in the presence of stimuli (e.g. an aggressive dog) is being measured which could potentially constitute a risk in a real-world environment (e.g. a dog bite). Given that the dog is the most popular companion animal species, to date there is limited research that identifies and reviews the use of virtual and augmented reality directly relating to human-dog interactions. Furthermore, there also appears to be no review of the equipment and dog model specifications, such as dog breed and behaviours, which are currently used in these studies. As a result, this systematic scoping review searched ten databases to assess the current use and specifications of dog models which directly focused on human-dog interactions. Ten articles were identified. Six related to assessment or treatment of dog fear/phobia (cynophobia), three included multiple animal phobias, including dogs, and one article investigated the human and virtual dog interactions whilst walking. Six articles used a single breed (German Shepherd, Beagle, Doberman, and Rottweiler). Both the breed and behaviours displayed lacked justification and were often not evidence based. Specific measurements of model quality (e.g., polygons/vertices) were reported in only two articles which may affect repeatability and make comparisons between studies difficult. The virtual reality equipment (e.g. CAVE, head mounted display) and navigation methods (e.g. joystick, mouse, room scale walking) used varied between studies. In conclusion, there is a need for the accurate development and representation, including appearance and behaviours, of dog models in virtual and augmented reality. This is of high importance especially as most of the research covered in this review was conducted with the aim to treat the fear or phobia of dogs.

A pilot study investigating human behaviour towards DAVE (Dog Assisted Virtual Environment) and interpretation of non-reactive and aggressive behaviours during a virtual reality exploration task

“…Therefore, the model reported in the present study could be incorporated into dog bite prevention education to teach and assess adults about the relevant canine behaviour signals which may be displayed prior to a bite such as those displayed in the Canine Ladder of Aggression. Furthermore, the non-reactive dog model can also be incorporated into dog phobia treatments as a form of gradual exposure [ 26 ]. The current virtual reality navigation in the present study (room scale movement) differs from previous phobia treatments (mouse/joystick) and is therefore likely to be more realistic for the user [ 26 ].…”

“…Furthermore, the non-reactive dog model can also be incorporated into dog phobia treatments as a form of gradual exposure [ 26 ]. The current virtual reality navigation in the present study (room scale movement) differs from previous phobia treatments (mouse/joystick) and is therefore likely to be more realistic for the user [ 26 ]. Furthermore, those individuals who are in occupations that may be at higher risk of dog bite injuries, such as postal and kennel workers, veterinary students/staff, could also benefit from education about dog behaviour in a real time and risk-free environment in virtual reality.…”

“…This is the first virtual dog model which has been reviewed by canine behavioural experts and based on the Canine Ladder of Aggression theory [27]. As recently highlighted by a systematic literature review of the current use of virtual dog models in human-animal interactions in virtual reality, Oxley et al [26] found that behaviours displayed by virtual dog models varied between models, are not reviewed by canine behavioural experts and lacked accurate evidence-based representation (e.g., none of the models that displayed aggressive behaviours reported to display appeasement signals). However, it is important to note that the Canine Ladder of Aggression in practice is not as linear as theoretically displayed as dogs may show some but not all behaviours during any one incident.…”

“…[ 26 ]). Of those dog models that have been developed, largely for dog phobia treatment, little justification or evidence-based research were given regarding the behaviours displayed and various VR equipment and navigation methods were used [ 26 ].…”

“…More recently, an AR (Augmented Reality) dog has been developed to assess user awareness, proximity, and locomotion whilst walking a virtual dog [25]. To our knowledge, no research has used VR in the assessment of non-phobic human behaviour for the purposes of understanding human behaviour towards dogs (see scoping review by Oxley et al [26]). Of those dog models that have been developed, largely for dog phobia treatment, little justification or evidence-based research were given regarding the behaviours displayed and various VR equipment and navigation methods were used [26].…”