“…Due to the limitations inherent in electrochemical and mechanical detection strategies, optical detection is favored for robust and sensitive analytical systems. Traditional optical detection methods like absorbance [20], fluorescence [21], chemiluminescence [22], and surface plasmon resonance [23] have been employed for detection of biomolecules and other potent analytes. However, as many of these strategies require microscopes, lasers, spectrophotometers, and photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), the resulting systems tend to be bulky and challenging to miniaturize into portable, compact, and costeffective devices [24,25].…”