Active gaze, visual look-ahead, and locomotor control.

Wilkie, Richard M.; Wann, John P.; Allison, Robert S.

doi:10.1037/0096-1523.34.5.1150

Cited by 89 publications

(172 citation statements)

References 22 publications

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“…Since human action is associated with a visual-motor delay (Hayhoe and Ballard, 2005;Land, 2006), a visual buffer of 0,80 to 2,00 seconds is used in locomotion (Land and Furneaux, 1997;Wilkie and Wann, 2003;Wilkie et al, 2008). Considering a visual buffer of one second, participants in our current experiment should have looked approximately 2,5 meter in front of them in the slowest condition.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The visual control of bicycle steering: The effects of speed and path width

Vansteenkiste

Cardon

D’Hondt

et al. 2013

Accident Analysis & Prevention

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Although cycling is a widespread form of transportation, little is known about the visual behaviour of bicycle users. This study examined whether the visual behaviour of cyclists can be explained by the twolevel model of steering described for car driving, and how it is influenced by cycling speed and lane width. In addition, this study investigated whether travel fixations, described during walking, can also be found during a cycling task. Twelve adult participants were asked to cycle three fifteen meter long cycling lanes of 10, 25 and 40cm wide at three different self-selected speeds (i.e., slow, preferred and fast). Participants' gaze behaviour was recorded at 50Hz using a head mounted eye tracker and the resulting scene video with overlay gaze cursor was analyzed frame by frame. Four types of fixations were distinguished: (1) travel fixations, (2) fixations inside the cycling lane (path), (3) fixations to the final meter of the lane (goal), and (4) fixations outside of the cycling lane (external). Participants were found to mainly watch the path (41%) and goal (40%) region while very few travel fixations were made (<5%). Instead of travel fixations, an optokinetic nystagmus was revealed when looking at the near path. Large variability between subjects in fixation location suggests that different strategies were used. Wider lanes resulted in a shift of gaze towards the end of the lane and to external regions, whereas higher cycling speeds resulted in a more distant gaze behaviour and more travel fixations. To conclude, the two-level model of steering as described for car driving is not fully in line with our findings during cycling, but the assumption that both near and far regions are necessary for efficient steering seems valid. A new model for visual behaviour during goal directed locomotion is presented.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The visual control of bicycle steering: The effects of speed and path width

Vansteenkiste

Cardon

D’Hondt

et al. 2013

Accident Analysis & Prevention

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“…Evidence to date that has linked gaze to steering a car (see, e.g., Land and Lee [1994], Robertshaw and Wilkie [2008], and Wilkie et al [2002Wilkie et al [ , 2005Wilkie et al [ , 2006Wilkie et al [ , 2008) suggests that drivers predominantly steer in the direction that their gaze is directed. Thus, in order to successfully negotiate a bend in the road, drivers need only look at points on the road that they desire to pass through in future [Robertshaw and Wilkie 2008].…”

Section: The Experimentsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Pilot gaze and glideslope control

Kim

Palmisano

Ash

et al. 2008

ACM Trans. Appl. Percept.

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We examined the eye movements of pilots as they carried out simulated aircraft landings under day and night lighting conditions. Our five students and five certified pilots were instructed to quickly achieve and then maintain a constant 3-degree glideslope relative to the runway. However, both groups of pilots were found to make significant glideslope control errors, especially during simulated night approaches. We found that pilot gaze was directed most often toward the runway and to the ground region located immediately in front of the runway, compared to other visual scene features. In general, their gaze was skewed toward the near half of the runway and tended to follow the runway threshold as it moved on the screen. Contrary to expectations, pilot gaze was not consistently directed at the aircraft's simulated aimpoint (i.e., its predicted future touchdown point based on scene motion). However, pilots did tend to fly the aircraft so that this point was aligned with the runway threshold. We conclude that the supplementary out-of-cockpit visual cues available during day landing conditions facilitated glideslope control performance. The available evidence suggests that these supplementary visual cues are acquired through peripheral vision, without the need for active fixation.

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“…In contrast, there is extensive literature examining used to adjust steering towards some goal under the tacit framework of feedback control (e.g. Salvucci & Gray, 2004;Wilkie, Wann, & Allison, 2008; see also Sentouh, Chevrel, Mars, & Claveau, 2009). To avoid further confusion, this manuscript uses the terms originally proposed by Donges (1978) of guidance control to describe steering using information from a far point, and compensatory control to describe steering using information from a near point.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Optic flow speed modulates guidance level control: New insights into two-level steering.

Mole¹,

Kountouriotis²,

Billington³

et al. 2016

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Perfor

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Responding to changes in the road ahead is essential for successful driving. Steering control can be modeled using 2 complementary mechanisms: guidance control (to anticipate future steering requirements) and compensatory control (to stabilize position-in-lane). Drivers seem to rapidly sample the visual information needed for steering using active gaze patterns, but the way in which this perceptual information is combined remains unclear. Influential models of steering capture many steering behaviors using just ‘far’ and ‘near’ road regions to inform guidance and compensatory control respectively (Salvucci & Gray, 2004). However, optic flow can influence steering even when road-edges are visible (Kountouriotis, Mole, Merat, & Wilkie, 2016). Two experiments assessed whether flow selectively interacted with compensatory and/or guidance levels of steering control, under either unconstrained gaze or constrained gaze conditions. Optic flow speed was manipulated independent of the veridical road-edges so that use of flow would lead to predictable understeering or oversteering. Steering was found to systematically vary according to flow speed, but crucially the Flow-Induced Steering Bias (FISB) magnitude depended on which road-edge components were visible. The presence of a guidance signal increased the influence of flow, with the largest FISB in ‘Far’ and ‘Complete’ road conditions, whereas the smallest FISB was observed when only ‘Near’ road-edges were visible. Gaze behaviors influenced steering to some degree, but did not fully explain the interaction between flow and road-edges. Overall the experiments demonstrate that optic flow can act indirectly upon steering control by modulating the guidance signal provided by a demarcated path.

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Active gaze, visual look-ahead, and locomotor control.

Cited by 89 publications

References 22 publications

The visual control of bicycle steering: The effects of speed and path width

The visual control of bicycle steering: The effects of speed and path width

Pilot gaze and glideslope control

Optic flow speed modulates guidance level control: New insights into two-level steering.

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