The regulation of gene expression in the brain reward regions is known to contribute to the pathogenesis and persistence of drug addiction. Increasing evidence suggests that the regulation of gene transcription is mediated by epigenetic mechanisms that alter the chromatin structure at specific gene promoters. To better understand the involvement of epigenetic regulation in drug reinforcement properties, rats were subjected to cocaine self-administration paradigm. Daily histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor infusions in the shell of the nucleus accumbens (NAc) caused an upward shift in the dose-response curve under fixed-ratio schedule and increased the break point under progressive-ratio schedule, indicating enhanced motivation for self-administered drug. The effect of the HDAC inhibitor is attributed to the increased elevation of histone acetylation induced by chronic, but not acute, cocaine experience. In contrast, neutralizing the chronic cocaine-induced increase in histone modification by the bilateral overexpression of HDAC4 in the NAc shell reduced drug motivation. The association between the motivation for cocaine and the transcriptional activation of addiction-related genes by H3 acetylation in the NAc shell was analyzed. Among the genes activated by chronic cocaine experiences, the expression of CaMKIIa, but not CaMKIIb, correlated positively with motivation for the drug. Lentivirus-mediated shRNA knockdown experiments showed that CaMKIIa, but not CaMKIIb, in the NAc shell is essential for the maintenance of motivation to self-administered cocaine. These findings suggest that chronic drug-use-induced transcriptional activation of genes, such as CaMKIIa, modulated by H3 acetylation in the NAc is a critical regulatory mechanism underlying motivation for drug reinforcement. Neuropsychopharmacology (2010) 35, 913-928; doi:10.1038/npp.2009; published online 9 December 2009 Keywords: histone acetylation; nucleus accumbens; motivation; cocaine self-administration; addiction; CaMKIIa
INTRODUCTIONDrug addiction is a debilitating psychiatric disorder characterized by (1) a compulsion to seek and take the drug, (2) a loss of control in limiting intake, and (3) the emergence of a negative emotional state when access to the drug is prevented (Hyman et al, 2006;Kalivas et al, 2005;Koob and Kreek, 2007). The complex behavioral changes leading to drug addiction are thought to result from molecular and cellular adaptation in specific brain regions (Brami-Cherrier et al, 2005). One area of intensive research to clarify neuroadaptation addresses the regulation of gene expression induced by the drug (Nestler, 2001). The drug induces changes in gene expression in key brain reward regions, such as the nucleus accumbens (NAc), prefrontal cortex (PFC), and ventral tegmental area (VTA). For instance, the expression of the immediate early gene c-Fos and several other Fos family proteins is upregulated in the nucleus accumbens, striatum (Courtin et al, 2006) and frontal cortex (Thiriet et al, 2000) after acute cocaine treatment. T...