ADHD symptoms across adolescence: the role of the family and school climate and the DRD4 and 5-HTTLPR genotype

Abstract

We examined bidirectional relations between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and family and school climate, and the possible role of DRD4 and/or 5-HTTLPR genotypes herein. Three-wave longitudinal data of 1860 adolescents (mean ages 11, 13.5, and 16 years) from the general population and clinic-referred cohort of TRacking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey were used. Using a multigroup Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model, we tested between-person (i.e., stable trait levels) and within-person (i.e., causal processes) associations across ADHD symptoms, family and school climate, and the extent to which these depended on genotype. Findings indicated no influence of genotype. Results did show significant between-person differences (ADHD symptoms with family climate r = .38; and school climate r = .23, p values < .001), indicating that higher stable levels of ADHD symptoms were associated with a less favorable family and school climate. Regarding within-person causal processes, ADHD symptoms predicted a less favorable family climate in early adolescence (β = .16, p < .01), while ADHD symptoms predicted a more favorable family climate in the later phase of adolescence (β = − .11, p < .01), a finding which we explain by normative developmental changes during adolescence. Overall, this study showed that negative associations between ADHD symptoms and both family and school climate are largely explained by stable between-person differences. We recommend applying the Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Path Model to developmental data to tease stable associations and change processes apart.

Sleep Is a Family Affair: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies on the Interplay between Adolescents’ Sleep and Family Factors

“…Adolescents' relationships with their family members play a crucial role in their development and adjustment [4]. Thus, multiple family factors and dynamics can promote adolescents' psychological health and protect them in challenging developmental phases [5]. In this regard, a crucial indicator of adolescents' health is their sleep quality.…”

Helpful family climate moderates the relationship between perceived family support of ADHD symptoms and depression: a conditional process model

“…The ideal family climate is warm and stable, as this may help support children when they encounter challenges in life [27]. Some have described it using terms such as 'democratic' , 'authoritarian' , 'extra-protection' and 'neglect' , while some use broader terms such as 'favorable' [28] or 'aversive' emotional climate [29]. To be able to classify family climate as positive or negative would be useful for clinical applications.…”

“…Both family issues and development of ADHD symptoms can have a bidirectional effect; for example, child impulsivity or activation can trigger parental hostility, which may lead to continuation of ADHD in the child [31][32][33]. A less favorable family climate is associated with ADHD symptoms [28]. Nevertheless, while most studies have analyzed the relationship between negative family environment and ADHD symptoms, positive environmental factors have often been ignored.…”