Advances in 3D printing of composite scaffolds for the repairment of bone tissue associated defects

Abstract

The conventional methods of using autografts and allografts for repairing defects in bone, the osteochondral bone, and the cartilage tissue have many disadvantages, like donor site morbidity and shortage of donors. Moreover, only 30% of the implanted grafts are shown to be successful in treating the defects. Hence, exploring alternative techniques such as tissue engineering to treat bone tissue associated defects is promising as it eliminates the above‐mentioned limitations. To enhance the mechanical and biological properties of the tissue engineered product, it is essential to fabricate the scaffold used in tissue engineering by the combination of various biomaterials. Three‐dimensional (3D) printing, with its ability to print composite materials and with complex geometry seems to have a huge potential in scaffold fabrication technique for engineering bone associated tissues. This review summarizes the recent applications and future perspectives of 3D printing technologies in the fabrication of composite scaffolds used in bone, osteochondral, and cartilage tissue engineering. Key developments in the field of 3D printing technologies involves the incorporation of various biomaterials and cells in printing composite scaffolds mimicking physiologically relevant complex geometry and gradient porosity. Much recently, the emerging trend of printing smart scaffolds which can respond to external stimulus such as temperature, pH and magnetic field, known as 4D printing is gaining immense popularity and can be considered as the future of 3D printing applications in the field of tissue engineering.

3D-Printed Double-Helical Biodegradable Iron Suture Anchor: A Rabbit Rotator Cuff Tear Model

“…3D printing technology allows for the rapid fabrication of porous implants and composite scaffolds which can be tailored to different orthopedic applications [25,49,50]. The Fe SA used in this study was produced by laser sintering using high purity biodegradable spherical Fe powder.…”

3d Printing: A Review on the Transformation of Additive Manufacturing

“…Currently the technology is more advanced for high-resolution 3D printing, such as Two-Photon Polymerization (TPP), Projection Micro Stereo Lithography (PµSL) which allow fabrication by using UV laser, direct ink writing (DIW) and Electrohydro Dynamic Printing (EHDP) can achieve high resolution [115]. A near-infrared femtosecond laser is used to establish photo resistance for the creation of ultraprecise 3D nanostructures in the TPP-based 3D printing technology and the potential use of TTP technique in the field of medicine is limitless [116].…”

Mechanical Evaluation of Hydrogel–Elastomer Interfaces Generated through Thiol–Ene Coupling

“…Increasingly, the potential of multiphase biomaterials combining relatively rigid hydrophobic elastomeric segments and softer hydrophilic hydrogels for a broad range of biomedical applications is emerging. This ranges from advanced in vitro models making use of hydrophobic elastomeric structures to compartmentalize and mechanically stimulate soft cell-encapsulating domains − to the engineering of tissue engineering scaffolds. − Such materials and associated microfabricated platforms are attractive for the study, control, and repair of soft–hard tissue interfaces. , Although the engineering of a thiol–ene-based soft hydrogel enabling cell encapsulation, such as in gelatin methacrylate systems, has enabled their integration within a broad range of polyesters − or silicones, , the study of their mechanical integration and adhesion to corresponding elastomers has received relatively little attention. New generations of microfabricated and 3D printed microfluidic chips to be used as advanced in vitro models and tissue engineering scaffolds combining structural hydrophobic elastomers or polyesters and engineered cell-remodelable hydrogels will be attractive tools for bioengineers and scientists in the field of regenerative medicine.…”

“…This ranges from advanced in vitro models making use of hydrophobic elastomeric structures to compartmentalize and mechanically stimulate soft cell-encapsulating domains 34 − 38 to the engineering of tissue engineering scaffolds. 39 − 41 Such materials and associated microfabricated platforms are attractive for the study, control, and repair of soft–hard tissue interfaces. 42 , 43 Although the engineering of a thiol–ene-based soft hydrogel enabling cell encapsulation, such as in gelatin methacrylate systems, has enabled their integration within a broad range of polyesters 44 − 47 or silicones, 48 , 49 the study of their mechanical integration and adhesion to corresponding elastomers has received relatively little attention.…”