Agricultural Technology in Early Medieval India (c. A.D. 500–1300)

Abstract

The article discusses the spread of agriculture to an unprecedented degree in the period from c. A.D. 500 to 1300 (early medieval times) on the basis of both epigraphic and textual materials that also speak of considerable diversity of crops, including what may be considered as cash crops. The author pays attention to the role of metal—especially iron—technology in the development of agriculture during this period. It also argues for betterment in manuring. Inseparably associated with the expansion of agriculture—as an impact of the issuance of profuse number of land grants—are better irrigation technologies. The diversity of irrigation tech-niques and hydraulic projects, local and supra local, had intimate linkages with the variability of access to precious water resources in disparate areas of the subcontinent. In this connection, the article also offers early Indian perceptions of the monsoons; it also seeks to underline the meteor-ologists’ observations of the correlation between the flood-level in the Nile catchment area (by the use of the Nilometer) and the pattern of rainfall in the subcontinent on a long chronological range.

Variable monsoons and human adaptations: Archaeological and palaeoenvironmental records during the last 1400 years in north-western India

“…As well as dominating the botanical assemblage numerically, these two crops also contribute 91% of the calorific value of the botanical remains from the site, with Echinochloa and foxtail millets contributing 4% each and broomcorn millet the remaining 1%. During this period, Chakravarti (2008) describes the development and proliferation of the iron plough, as well as improvements in manuring techniques as key to the expansion of agriculture across northern India. As rabi crops are generally sown after the monsoon, the development of these technologies may have been important for efficient preparation of wheat and barley fields around Chandravati during this period.…”

“…Social and technological changes during this time may have also impacted the production of food around Chandravati. Chakravarti (2008) notes the proliferation of epigraphic mentions of vapi (step wells) and the newer technology of araghatta (bucket carrying water wheels) across the arid areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat from ca. 1000 CE.…”

15. Trends in Economic History Writing of Early South Asia

“…This was done in order to be able to free the Bible of its local and temporal components and to identify its true content for "the moral betterment of humanity" (Adluri and Bagchee 2014, 12-14).  Some works discussing the development of economic history writing about ancient India are: Morris and Stein 1961;Sharma and Jha 1974;Chakravarti 2001;Chattopadhyaya 2003, 217-232;Ray 2011;Basant 2012, 4-54. mies were discussed in the context of debates over state formation processes and the rise and fall of empires more generally. And finally, research on foreign contacts and their economic impact was informed by research on other historical periods and projected onto ancient times using various modern theoretical approaches.…”

“…See also Gopal andSrivastava 2008.  Ghoshal 1930;Sharma 1983b;Chakravarti 2008. ent irrigation system. 48 Instances of the donation of wells and water tanks from Mathura 49 and Gandhāra, 50 as well as the presence of tanks at Kashmir Smast, 51 link the water management with ritual and monastic sites.…”

“… Gurukkal 2016.  Chakravarti 2017, 333-338;Chakravarti 2007 also emphasized the study of regional centers of exchange, such as puṭabhedana, maṇḍapikas, and peṇṭhā, which offer glimpses into the complexity of market places.  Mookerji 1912.…”