Airborne transmission of respiratory viruses

Wang, Chia C.; Prather, Kimberly A.; Sznitman, Josué; Jimenez, José L.; Lakdawala, Seema S.; Tüfekçi, Zeynep; Marr, Linsey C.

doi:10.1126/science.abd9149

Cited by 1,001 publications

(870 citation statements)

References 200 publications

(306 reference statements)

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“…Size is an important determinant of how droplets and particles travel through the air, so it significantly impacts transmission risk and mode. Those smaller than 10 μm remain suspended in air for many minutes to hours, during which they can travel long distances; this does not rule out their potential to transmit at close range, too ( 5 , 6 ).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Infectious SARS-CoV-2 Is Emitted in Aerosol Particles

Hawks

Prussin

Kuchinsky

et al. 2021

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Infectious SARS-CoV-2 Is Emitted in Aerosol Particles

Hawks

Prussin

Kuchinsky

et al. 2021

mBio

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“…Although the airborne pathway, i.e. aerosol particles carrying pathogens and infecting a target, is recognised as a major route of transmission of many infectious diseases, including transmission of SARS-CoV-2 (Prather et al, 2020;Greenhalgh et al, 2021;Wang et al, 2021), the current understanding of the processes involved in the transmission of infection (e.g. during the current pandemic) is incomplete.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Germicidal effects of fresh air were investigated as part of biodefence research in the 1970s (Hood, 2009). Fresh air has been considered an option in dealing with antimicrobial resistance (Wang et al, 2020). Phytotoxic and germicidal effects were related to the Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union.…”

Section: The History Of the Open-air Factormentioning

confidence: 99%

Opinion: The germicidal effect of ambient air (open-air factor) revisited

et al. 2021

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Abstract. The term open-air factor (OAF) was coined following microbiological research in the 1960s and 1970s which established that rural air had powerful germicidal properties and attributed this to Criegee intermediates formed in the reaction of ozone with alkenes. We have re-evaluated those early experiments applying the current state of knowledge of ozone–alkene reactions. Contrary to previous speculation, neither Criegee intermediates nor the HO radicals formed in their decomposition are directly responsible for the germicidal activity attributed to the OAF. We identify other potential candidates, which are formed in ozone–alkene reactions and have known (and likely) germicidal properties, but the compounds responsible for the OAF remain a mystery. There has been very little research into the OAF since the 1970s, and this effect seems to have been largely forgotten. In this opinion piece we remind the community of the germicidal open-air factor. Given the current global pandemic spread by an airborne pathogen, understanding the natural germicidal effects of ambient air, solving the mystery of the open-air factor and determining how this effect can be used to improve human welfare should be a high priority for the atmospheric science community.

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“…Space people out (physical distancing, joining remotely, cohorting) Physical distancing (sometimes called social distancing) is effective at reducing droplet transmission, since droplets fall to the ground within a few feet due to gravity 33 . Physical distancing also protects against airborne transmission, since most airborne particles are spread via close contact, especially when a person is in the direct stream of someone else's exhaled breath (think of smelling the garlic on someone's breath-you might be able to smell it across the room but it is much stronger at close range) 7 .…”

Section: Everyone Should Wear Masksmentioning

confidence: 99%

Rapid evidence review to inform safe return to campus in the context of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)

Greenhalgh¹,

Wyatt²,

Griffin³

2021

Wellcome Open Res

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Background: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is transmitted predominantly through the air in crowded and unventilated indoor spaces among unvaccinated people. Universities and colleges are potential settings for its spread. Methods: An interdisciplinary team from public health, virology, and biology used narrative methods to summarise and synthesise evidence on key control measures, taking account of mode of transmission. Results: Evidence from a wide range of primary studies supports six measures. Vaccinate (aim for > 90% coverage and make it easy to get a jab). Require masks indoors, especially in crowded settings. If everyone wears well-fitting cloth masks, source control will be high, but for maximum self-protection, respirator masks should be worn. Masks should not be removed for speaking or singing. Space people out by physical distancing (but there is no “safe” distance because transmission risk varies with factors such as ventilation, activity levels and crowding), reducing class size (including offering blended learning), and cohorting (students remain in small groups with no cross-mixing). Clean indoor air using engineering controls—ventilation (while monitoring CO2 levels), inbuilt filtration systems, or portable air cleaners fitted with high efficiency particulate air [HEPA] filters). Test asymptomatic staff and students using lateral flow tests, with tracing and isolating infectious cases when incidence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is high. Support clinically vulnerable people to work remotely. There is no direct evidence to support hand sanitising, fomite controls or temperature-taking. There is evidence that freestanding plastic screens, face visors and electronic air-cleaning systems are ineffective. Conclusions: The above six evidence-based measures should be combined into a multi-faceted strategy to maximise both student safety and the continuation of in-person and online education provision. Staff and students seeking to negotiate a safe working and learning environment should collect data (e.g. CO2 levels, room occupancy) to inform conversations.

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Airborne transmission of respiratory viruses

Cited by 1,001 publications

References 200 publications

Infectious SARS-CoV-2 Is Emitted in Aerosol Particles

Infectious SARS-CoV-2 Is Emitted in Aerosol Particles

Opinion: The germicidal effect of ambient air (open-air factor) revisited

Rapid evidence review to inform safe return to campus in the context of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)

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