Alleviation of Choking Under Pressure in Elite Golf: An Action Research Study

Abstract

The study examined the effect of an evidence-based intervention on choking in golf. It is informed by the work of Hill, Hanton, Matthews and Fleming (2010a) that explored the experiences of elite golfers who either choked or excelled under pressure. The perceptions of elite golf coaches who worked with both 'chokers' and those who excelled, were also considered. It revealed that choking may be alleviated through the use of process goals, cognitive restructuring, imagery, simulated training and a pre/postshot routine. The present study incorporated each strategy into an intervention that was introduced to two professional golfers (aged 22) who choked under pressure regularly. Through an action research framework the impact of the intervention was evaluated over a ten month period via qualitative methods. The results indicated the intervention alleviated the participants' choking episodes and so provides information that can be of use to practitioners working with golfers who choke.Choking in sport is a term used to describe an acute performance breakdown (Clark, Tofler, & Lardon, 2005), such as that experienced by Greg Norman in the 1996 Masters golf event, when he inextricably lost by five shots despite leading the final round by six. Or that endured by Jana Novotna, whose performance in the 1993 Wimbledon final deteriorated to such an extent that she became, "unrecognisable… [as] an elite tennis player" (Gladwell, 2000, p. 84). However, despite its prevalence and detrimental impact on performance, choking has been subjected to limited research attention until recently (see Beilock & Gray, 2007). Hill, Hanton, Fleming, and Matthews (2009) define choking as, "a process whereby the individual perceives their resources are insufficient to meet the demands of the situation, and concludes with a significant drop in performance -a choke" (p. 206). However, Mesagno and Mullane-Grant (2010) proposed an alternative definition that they claim provides a more appropriate foundation for future choking research. It states that choking is a, "critical deterioration in skill execution, leading to substandard performance that is caused by an elevation in anxiety levels under perceived pressure, at a time when successful outcome is normally attainable by the athlete" (p. 343). Yet, it remains unclear whether this definition is suitable, as the choke differs from a substandard performance (Gucciardi, Longbottom, Jackson, & Dimmock, 2010;Hill, Hanton, Matthews, & Fleming, 2010b) and appears to be initiated by the athlete's negative interpretation of their anxiety, rather than its elevated levels per se (Gucciardi et al., 2010;Otton, 2009). As such, the definition of choking presented by Hill et al. (2009) may provide currently the most fitting framework for researchers and practitioners to work within.Despite on-going debate regarding the definition, it is agreed that choking is the result of attentional disturbances caused by self-focus and/or 'distraction' (see Beilock & Gray, 2007). Self-focus theories suggest that choking occ...

Public Expectation, Pressure, and Avoiding the Choke: A Case Study from Elite Sport

“…Similar to Hill and Shaw's (2013) findings from five team sports (including rugby) the All Blacks coaches encouraged their players to adopt a process of positive reflection that used the choking experience constructively (also see Gucciardi et al, 2010). Furthermore, Hill et al (2011) concluded that reflecting positively on negative events by drawing constructive lessons can encourage progression through experience by developing facilitative anxiety perceptions that prevent the lowering of confidence that can occur if the athlete is allowed to mull over (ruminate) negative experiences such as the stereotype threat of being 'RWC chokers'. Beilock and McConnell (2004) concluded that "awareness of a negative stereotype about one's social group hurts performance" (p. 598), consequently efforts to engage in positive reflection and reappraisal of stereotype threats such as those employed by the All Blacks' coaches appeared to be a particularly proactive method for reducing the effect of such threats.…”

“…I'd rather go through life being under pressure, than just cruising" (Chalmers, 2008). Similar to the cognitive restructuring identified by Hill et al (2011), the All Blacks viewed pressure as being positive, not negative; as being helpful, not a hindrance; as something to be savored, not feared; pressure becomes your friend, not your enemy; pressure becomes an opportunity, not an obstacle (All Blacks choking, 2011, Sept 5th; Hansen, 2011;Howitt & Henry, 2012;McCaw & McGee, 2012;Paul, 2012b, Oct 23rd;Stanley, 2012). As the following quote from Graham Henry (All Blacks head coach) indicates, the All Blacks adopted the attitude that the public expectation was a sign of respect: "[The public expectation is] inspirational.…”

“…According to the distraction theories, pressure causes the athlete to process information required for skill execution at the same time as cognitions related to anxiety. This information overload leads to inefficient processing of task-relevant information which can lead to choking (Hill, Hanton, Matthews, & Fleming, 2011;Mullen, Hardy & Tattersall, 2005;Wilson, Chattington, Marple-Horvat, & Smith, 2007). As outlined by Beilock and Carr (2005), a double-whammy of pressure and intrusive worries generates distractions that compete and reduce working memory capacity that would otherwise be allocated to skill execution; thus causing a choke.…”

Listening to the body? How phenomenological insights can be used to explore a golfer’s experience of the physicality of her body

“…However, most of the studies presented in articles are in the area of sports psychology or motor learning, and seem to relate primarily to the physicality of the body as something which the golfers have to learn to handle and cope with in a controlled manner when optimising their performance (Smith et al 2000, Nicholls 2007a, Wulf and Su 2007, Bell and Hardy 2009, Gucciardi et al 2010, Nicholls et al 2010, Hill et al 2011. Only a minority of studies revolve specifically around how golfers sense or feel the physicality of their bodies when training and performing their complex skills.…”

“…a psycho-neuromuscular impediment, might affect the execution of the putting stroke in golf (Smith et al 2000). Along the same lines, and in the case of an acute performance breakdown, when a golfer 'overthinks' and this gets in the way of executing a practised routine, the concept of 'choking' has been investigated to see how this might be used constructively for improving performance (Gucciardi et al 2010, Hill et al 2011. These studies of how golfers might use their skills successfully in performance implicitly draw on the subject's experience of her body as related to two dimensions of subject's self-consciousness -the consciousness taking control of the unconscious.…”