PropolisPropolis (bee glue) is a beehive product prepared by bees of the Apis mellifera species, using resinous substances collected from various plants. 15,16 These substances are mixed with the β-glycosidase enzyme of their saliva, partially digested, and added to bee wax to form the final product.This product, commonly referred as a "natural antibiotic", has an important role in protecting, reinforcing and repairing the hives. In addition, any invaders are wrapped in propolis and die by asphyxia, then the bodies are preserved, which prevents the putrefaction of the honeycomb. 17À19 It is also a barrier to molds and yeasts, bacteria, viruses, and rain. Propolis is mainly composed of resins (50%), waxes (30%), essential oils (10%), pollen (5%), and other organic compounds (5%), among which are phenolic compounds, esters, flavonoids, terpenes, aromatic aldeydes and alcohols. 20À23 However, it is worth mentioning that this composition differs significantly with botanical and geographical origin and depends on climatic conditions, terrain, water availability and other environmental factors. 18,24À28 It has been reported that this product has several pharmacological properties, such as antibiotic, anti-neoplastic, anti-inflammatory, 26 anti-diarrheatic, antimicrobial, 29,30 antiviral, 31 antioxidant, 32 hepatoprotective, cardiostatic, 33 antitumoral, 23,34 anti-ulcerus and immunostimulatory activity. 35,36 Other studies highlight its efficiency as an anti-HIV-1, 37 anti-neurodegenerative 38 and anti-tuberculosis agent. 39 Due to these medicinal properties, propolis is generating increasing interest from the pharmaceutical, food and cosmetic industries, and it is currently being introduced in products for human consumption, such as drinks and food additives. 32,40
PHENOLIC AND FLAVONOID COMPOUNDS HoneyPhenolic compounds are one of the most important groups of plant secondary metabolites, comprising at least 8000 different known structures. Their chemical structures range from simple phenolic molecules to high molecular weight polymers of approximately 30000 Da. 41 These compounds are reported to exhibit anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherogenic, anti-thrombotic, immune modulating, analgesic, antineoplatic behavior, antiviral activity, antiulcer properties, hormone, antibiotic and cardiovascular activities, among others, and exert these functions as antioxidant activities. 42,43 In addition, flavonoids inhibit lipid peroxidation, platelet aggregation, capillary permeability and the activity of enzyme systems including cyclo-oxygenase and lipoxygenase. 10,44 The honey phenolics and the flavonoids present in honey are divided into three classes with similar structure; flavonols, flavones and flavanones. These are important due to their contribution to honey color, taste and flavor and also due to their beneficial effects on health. In honey, propolis and royal jelly, most of the phenolic compounds are present in the form of flavonoids, whose concentration depends on various factors, including the plant spe...