Altitude on Cartographic Materials and Its Correction According to New Measurement Techniques

Abstract

Determining the correct height of mountain peaks is vital for tourism, but it is also important as a reference point for devices equipped with GPS (Global Positioning System), e.g., watches or car navigation systems. The peak altitude data are part of geographic and geodetic information. As more modern technologies and equipment become available, their precisions should increase. However, verification of peak heights is usually only conducted for the highest, well-known mountains—lower peaks or mountain passes are rarely verified. Therefore, this study focuses on an investigation of 12 altitude points on a section of the longest and most famous touristic trail in Poland (the Main Beskid Trail), located in the Orava–Żywiec Beskids Mts (Mountains). The aim of this research is to measure and verify the heights of the 12 selected mountain peaks, in addition to evaluating the chosen methods based on the quality of the obtained data and determining their suitability and opportunities for use in further research. Measurements were obtained at the most specific height points—on the 12 highest points of the summits. This study compares two modern measurement techniques: the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) and light detection and ranging (LiDAR). The obtained results were later compared with those widely used on the internet and in printed materials (period covered: 1884–2015). This analysis demonstrates that lesser-known objects are rarely the subject of remeasurement and significant altitude errors may occur, primarily because the heights originated from a source in the past when modern methods were not available. Our findings indicate that the heights of the peaks presented in cartographic materials are inaccurate. The assumed heights should be corrected by direct measurements using modern techniques.

Elevation Accuracy of Forest Road Maps Derived from Aerial Imaging, Airborne Laser Scanning and Mobile Laser Scanning Data

“…Unlike traditional optical sensors, ALS enables the acquisition of multiple returns, so it is possible to obtain information about forest stands and individual trees, including the understory. Even in areas with dense vegetation, ALS enables the recording of the true ground based on the last returns that penetrate through the gaps of the forest canopy [19,[22][23][24]. Thus, the terrain derived from classified ALS point clouds can also reveal road structures in densely forested areas.…”

Use of 3D Inferred Imagining for Detection of Changes in Geology in Longwall-Type Excavation Front

“…IR camera is an electric device that needs to undergo the same safety procedures as other equipment. Thus, it should be safe to use in potential methane-and coal dust-filled environments [21][22][23]. This implies the use of particular materials during the construction and dustproofness proofing.…”

“…This is usually not a problem since miners do not work in this area. However, the geological crew needs to inventory the front [23,30,31]. This is usually performed by walking up to the front of the excavation with the unsupported roof, cleaning the front from the coal dust, and making measurements with a tape measure.…”

Coupling Historical Maps and LiDAR Data to Identify Man-Made Landforms in Urban Areas

“…Cartography was also functional to the establishment of overseas colonial empires in the 18th and 19th century, and to the modernization of newly conquered areas, as was the case of Italy in the Napoleonic period [29]. The methodology of production was used and improved until the 1980s when significant adoption of digital techniques in data acquisition has emerged [30,31]. Particularly valuable examples of precise geographical representation in Italy are detailed cadastral plans of some pre-unitary states, including the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, the Sardinian Kingdom, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies [32,33], whose astronomic observatories allowed optimal geodetic measurements, similarly to those in northern and central Europe states.…”