An adaptive orienting theory of error processing

Abstract

The ability to detect and correct action errors is paramount to safe and efficient goaldirected behaviors. Existing work on the neural underpinnings of error processing and post-error behavioral adaptations has led to the development of several mechanistic theories of error processing. These theories can be roughly grouped into adaptive and maladaptive theories. While adaptive theories propose that errors trigger a cascade of processes that will result in improved behavior after error commission, maladaptive theories hold that error commission momentarily impairs behavior. Neither group of theories can account for all available data, as different empirical studies find both impaired and improved post-error behavior. This article attempts a synthesis between the predictions made by prominent adaptive and maladaptive theories. Specifically, it is proposed that errors invoke a nonspecific cascade of processing that will rapidly interrupt and inhibit ongoing behavior and cognition, as well as orient attention toward the source of the error. It is proposed that this cascade follows all unexpected action outcomes, not just errors. In the case of errors, this cascade is followed by error-specific, controlled processing, which is specifically aimed at (re) tuning the existing task set. This theory combines existing predictions from maladaptive orienting and bottleneck theories with specific neural mechanisms from the wider field of cognitive control, including from error-specific theories of adaptive post-error processing. The article aims to describe the proposed framework and its implications for post-error slowing and post-error accuracy, propose mechanistic neural circuitry for post-error processing, and derive specific hypotheses for future empirical investigations. K E Y W O R D Sattention, cognitive control, error processing, inhibitory control, orienting, performance monitoring | IN TRO DUCT IO NThe ability to adapt behavior after erroneous actions is one of the key components of human cognitive control. Correcting current and avoiding future errors is paramount to survival. These abilities are the centerpiece of the scientific field of performance monitoring. Research into the neurophysiological and behavioral changes associated with error processing has generated several influential theories over the past few decades, which seek to explain how the human brain reacts to error commission. While many existing theories entail unique mechanisms and propose specific corollaries, one factor by which all theories can be roughly classified is whether they propose that psychological and neural processes triggered by error commission are maladaptive or adaptive. Empirically, this classification can be made based on whether a theory predicts that error commission is ultimately beneficial or detrimental to post-error behavior. Specifically, adaptive theories propose that errors trigger a cascade of neural processes that represents a remedial effort of the cognitive system, which is explicitly targeted at avoiding f...

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“…We have suggested that the computational goal of this generative system is thus not specific to learning and is instead a more generic orienting system involved in signaling the need for cognitive control (Cavanagh & Frank, 2014). A generic orienting response can then invoke adaptive control processes (see Wessel, 2018), possibly due to theta band phase-based coupling between brain regions (Cavanagh, Cohen, & Allen, 2009; see Figure 3a). It is fair to call out the irony within this definition, since cognitive control is a psychological term.…”

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“…From this perspective, errors might be considered maladaptive, as they derail ongoing behaviors. While these two strands of the literature—those focusing on adaptive responses and those focusing on maladaptive responses—have proceeded relatively independently, Wessel ( ) proposes a theory designed to integrate the two. He argues that errors cause a disruption or halting of ongoing behavior, consistent with the maladaptive theories.…”

“…With regard to the neural underpinnings, Wessel ( ) cites work suggesting that an inhibition network consisting of regions of the presupplementary motor area, right inferior frontal gyrus, and subthalamic nucleus of the basal ganglia are involved in the disruption of behavior. Van Campen, Kunert, van den Wildenberg, & Ridderinkof ( ) present evidence using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the critical role of right inferior frontal gyrus in the suppression of such action tendencies.…”