An ecological-transactional analysis of children and contexts: The longitudinal interplay among child maltreatment, community violence, and children's symptomatology

Abstract

Cicchetti and Lynch have conceptualized ecological contexts as consisting of nested levels with varying degrees of proximity to the individual. These levels of the environment interact and transact with each other over time in shaping individual development and adaptation. With a sample of maltreated (n = 188) and nonmaltreated (n = 134) children between the ages of 7 and 12 years, this investigation employed a 1-year longitudinal design to conduct an ecological-transactional analysis of the mutual relationships among community violence, child maltreatment, and children's functioning over time. Indicators of children's functioning were externalizing and internalizing behavior problems and self-rated traumatic stress reactions, depressive symptomatology, and self-esteem. Either full or partial support was obtained for the study's primary hypotheses. Rates of maltreatment, particularly physical abuse, were related to levels of child-reported violence in the community. In addition, child maltreatment and exposure to community violence were related to different aspects of children's functioning. Specific effects were observed for neglect and sexual abuse and for witnessing and being victimized by violence in the community. Finally, there was evidence that children and their contexts mutually influence each other over time. Results were discussed within the framework of an ecological-transactional model of development.

Developmental trajectories of externalizing and internalizing behaviors: Factors underlying resilience in physically abused children

“…It appears that, for abused children, making hostile attributions may be an adaptive strategy in buffering them from internalizing problems, although not from externalizing problems. Perhaps attributing hostile intent in a truly hostile environment helps abused children to avoid internalizing problems that may result from self blame in their circumstances (Lynch & Cicchetti, 1998). This finding may be analogous to findings termed pathologic adaptation to violence, which show that some youth experience emotional numbing in response to witnessing frequent violence in the community; the emotional numbing reduces internalizing problems but may also increase violent behavior (Garbarino, 1995;Ng-Mak, Salzinger, Feldman, & Stueve, 2004;SchwabStone et al, 1995).…”

“…Commonly used indicators of competence have included self-esteem (Lynch & Cicchetti, 1998), social skills (Trickett, 1997), cognitive ability (Rogosch, Cicchetti, & Aber, 1995), and a lack of depressive symptoms (Johnson et al, 2002). In the present study, we chose to look at low levels of children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors as indicators of children's competent functioning.…”

“…Research indicates that individuals who have been physically abused early in life are at greater risk than are their nonabused peers for demonstrating externalizing behaviors such as aggression (Lansford et al, 2002), conduct disorders (Lynch & Cicchetti, 1998), and delinquency (Stouthamer-Loeber, Loeber, Homish, & Wei, 2001). It also demonstrates that physically abused children are at greater risk for displaying internalizing emotional distress including symptoms of depression (Toth, Manly, & Cicchetti, 1992), anxiety (Johnson et al, 2002), and maladaptive peer relationships …”

“…The findings provide a great deal of support for an additive or main effect perspective on vulnerability and protective factors and some support for an interactive perspective. It appears that some protective and vulnerability factors do not have stronger effects for physically abused children, but instead are equally beneficial or harmful to children regardless of their abuse status.Research indicates that individuals who have been physically abused early in life are at greater risk than are their nonabused peers for demonstrating externalizing behaviors such as aggression (Lansford et al, 2002), conduct disorders (Lynch & Cicchetti, 1998), and delinquency (Stouthamer-Loeber, Loeber, Homish, & Wei, 2001). It also demonstrates that physically abused children are at greater risk for displaying internalizing emotional distress including symptoms of depression (Toth, Manly, & Cicchetti, 1992), anxiety (Johnson et al, 2002), and maladaptive peer relationships …”

Role of Direct and Indirect Violence Exposure on Externalizing Behavior in Children

“…46 Furthermore, children exposed to IPV are more likely to experience direct physical aggression by a caregiver as well. 22,[48][49][50][51][52][53] Hence, exposure to one type of direct or indirect violence in the home increases the risk of exposure to other types.…”