“…For vaccine application, LNPs containing mRNA coding for protein antigens have been used to induce strong immune responses, such as antigen-specific antibody responses and T-cell responses in mice and rhesus macaques [ 18 , 19 ]. In addition, there is increasing evidence of the usefulness of LNPs as efficient antigen-delivery vehicles [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ]. For example, by using protein antigens from dengue virus and hepatitis B virus, it has been shown that specific LNPs can enhance co-administered antigen-specific antibody responses, CD4 + T-cell responses, and CD8 + T-cell responses in mice, guinea pigs, and non-human primates without the addition of immunomodulatory adjuvant molecules [ 23 , 24 , 25 ], although the precise mechanism of adjuvanticity of specific LNPs remains unclear.…”