An Epidemiological Perspective of Ultraviolet Exposure—Public Health Concerns

Abstract

Over the last 30 years, many countries have developed strong sun protection programs, spurred on by rapidly increasing skin cancer incidence and concerns about stratospheric ozone depletion. More recently, considerable concern has arisen about widespread vitamin D insufficiency, creating a "sun exposure dilemma," since in most regions vitamin D predominantly derives from endogenous synthesis in the skin initiated by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Little attention has been paid to whether a similar dilemma exists for UV-related eye conditions.For the eyes, to our current knowledge, exposure to UV radiation has only adverse effects. There is strong evidence that acute high dose exposure to UV radiation causes photokeratitis and photoconjunctivitis, while even low dose chronic exposure to UV radiation is a risk factor for cataract, pterygium, and squamous cell carcinoma of the cornea and conjunctiva. There is weaker evidence in relation to other conditions, including ocular melanoma and age-related macular degeneration. Ultraviolet radiation-related eye diseases are common, disabling, and cause a considerable disease burden worldwide.The "correct" public health message for optimal sun exposure is not clear cut, with too many variables-ambient UV radiation, personal skin type, age, weight, clothing habits, medication, and others-for a blanket sun safety message. In addition, there remain many unknowns, including strong evidence supporting or refuting the very many proposed health benefits of vitamin D. More evidence is required to define disease burdens for UV-induced eye diseases, to evaluate the decrease in disease burden from sun protective measures and to elucidate any beneficial effects of exposure of the eye to UV radiation, to provide appropriate advice to the public.

Tanning bed burns reported on Twitter: over 15,000 in 2013

“…UV exposure from indoor tanning beds is a known cause of eye problems [8], and chronic UV exposure to the eyes can damage surface tissues and internal structures (e.g., cornea, lens) [19,20]. Federal regulations require the usage of eye protection while indoor tanning [21].…”

Involvement of the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways in ultraviolet B-induced apoptosis of corneal epithelial cells

“…This balance is required to maintain a smooth optical surface on the cornea, provide a barrier from the environment and prevent painful exposure of corneal nerves. Damage by UVB has the potential to upset this balance by increasing the shedding rate of superficial cells above the normal level (Ren and Wilson, 1994), and recent papers have drawn attention to public health concerns about ocular UVB exposure (Lucas, 2011; Coroneo, 2011; Lin et al 2013). The cornea protects the lens and retina from damage by absorbing the majority of ambient UVB radiation (Ringvold, 1998; Kolozvari et al, 2002; Podskochy, 2004).…”

The potential impact of climate change and ultraviolet radiation on vaccine-preventable infectious diseases and immunization service delivery system

“…In 2011, a hole was recorded for the first time in the ozone layer above the Arctic [9]. Depletion of stratospheric ozone has led to excessive UVB exposure in recent decades, which is associated with health risks [6] including: melanoma [10][11][12][13], non-melanoma skin cancers (basal cell carcinoma [14][15][16], squamous cell carcinoma [17]), Merkel cell carcinoma [10] and common eye diseases [18,19].…”