An outline of SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis and the complement cascade of immune system

Abstract

Background Coronavirus disease 19 is a viral infection caused by a novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2. It was first notified in Wuhan, China, is now spread into numerous part of the world. Thus, the world needs urgent support and encouragement to develop a vaccine or antiviral treatments to combat the atrocious outbreak. Main body of the abstract The origin of this virus is yet unknown; however, rapid transmission from human-to-human “Anthroponosis” has widely confirmed. The world is witnessing a continuous hike in SARS-CoV-2 infection. In light of the outbreak of coronavirus disease 19, we have aimed to highlight the basic and vital information about the novel coronavirus. We provide an overview of SARS-CoV-2 transmission, timeline and its pathophysiological properties which would be an aid for the development of therapeutic molecules and antiviral drugs. Immune system plays a crucial role in virus infection in order to control but may have dark side when becomes uncontrollable. The host and SARS-CoV-2 interaction describe how the virus exploits host machinery and how overactive host immune response can cause disease severity also addressed in this review. Short conclusion Safe and effective vaccines may be the game-changing tools, but in the near future wearing mask, washing hands at regular intervals, avoiding crowed, maintaining physical distancing and hygienic surrounding, must be good practices to reduce and break the transmission chain. Still, research is ongoing not only on how vaccines protect against disease, but also against infection and transmission.

Structural, genomic information and computational analysis of emerging coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2)

“…To date, a total of 413,503,790 cases of COVID-19 have been reported across the globe which lead to the death of 5,826,562 people. An overview of SARS-CoV-2 transmission, timeline and pathophysiological properties were described by Hembram (2021) and they also depicted the host and SARS-CoV-2 interaction and explained how the virus exploits host machinery. This article will summarize an overview of SARS-CoV-2, its outbreak history, its taxonomy, and genomic information of SARS-CoV-2 available to date.…”

How do the severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its variants escape the host protective immunity and mediate pathogenesis?

“…The connection of declining clinical state with the lessening viral counts and the commencement of a high immunological response (i.e., the elevated leukocytes), plus the presence of markedly elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines may intimate that the stern lung impairment is on the whole immunopathological event (Bonnet et al 2021 ; Hembram 2021 ; Kikkert 2020 ). Indeed, besides such immune-mediated mechanisms, SARS-CoV-2 has also been noticed to influence the host cells by its cytocidal activity as observed through the cytopathic effects in the kidney cells as well as the formation of syncytia in lung tissues during viral replication.…”

“…SARS-CoV-2 has been reported to act as interferon antagonists (the IFN-stimulated genes, ISGs may impart protective effects to host), to interfere with the PRR signaling such as TLRs, and to generate the non-productive inflammation, which in turn results in the cytokine storm as well as the viral shedding along the major organs because of the viral potential to avoid the host anti-viral interferon response (type I/III IFNs for the host defense) (Hembram 2021 ; Taefehshokr et al 2020 ; Vabret et al 2020 ). Especially, the increased levels of the pro-inflammatory IL-2, IL-7, G-CSF, MCP-1, MIP-1α, IP-10, and TNF-α has been shown to trigger the influx of neutrophils and other myeloid cells along the lung tissue, evoking the severe local inflammatory response (Kikkert 2020 ; Taefehshokr et al 2020 ; Vabret et al 2020 ).…”

Bioinformatic analysis of the S protein of human respiratory coronavirus

“…Coronaviruses belong to the order Nidovirales, Coronaviridae, and are classified into α, β, γ, and δ coronaviruses according to their genome sequences. SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, HCoV HKU1, and SARS-CoV-2 all belong to the β genus ( Agarwal et al, 2022 , Hembram, 2021 , Zaki et al, 2012 , Zhong et al, 2003 ). Coronaviruses contain four structural proteins: The nucleocapsid protein (N), spike protein (S), envelope protein (E), and membrane protein (M) ( Bosch et al, 2003 ).…”