Anthocyanin Pigments: Beyond Aesthetics

Abstract

Anthocyanins are polyphenol compounds that render various hues of pink, red, purple, and blue in flowers, vegetables, and fruits. Anthocyanins also play significant roles in plant propagation, ecophysiology, and plant defense mechanisms. Structurally, anthocyanins are anthocyanidins modified by sugars and acyl acids. Anthocyanin colors are susceptible to pH, light, temperatures, and metal ions. The stability of anthocyanins is controlled by various factors, including inter and intramolecular complexations. Chromatographic and spectrometric methods have been extensively used for the extraction, isolation, and identification of anthocyanins. Anthocyanins play a major role in the pharmaceutical; nutraceutical; and food coloring, flavoring, and preserving industries. Research in these areas has not satisfied the urge for natural and sustainable colors and supplemental products. The lability of anthocyanins under various formulated conditions is the primary reason for this delay. New gene editing technologies to modify anthocyanin structures in vivo and the structural modification of anthocyanin via semi-synthetic methods offer new opportunities in this area. This review focusses on the biogenetics of anthocyanins; their colors, structural modifications, and stability; their various applications in human health and welfare; and advances in the field.

Dietary Effects of Anthocyanins in Human Health: A Comprehensive Review

“…Their structure presents at least one benzene ring coupled to one or more hydroxyl groups and can range from simple phenolic, low molecular weight and single-aromatic molecules to highly polymerized compounds [ 28 ]. In order to facilitate their distinction, phenolics are classified into two major groups: (i) non-flavonoid compounds (phenolic acids, tannins, lignans, coumarins, stilbenes, and curcuminoids) and (ii) flavonoid compounds (anthocyanidins, flavan-3-ols, and their oligomeric structures, recognized as proanthocyanidins, flavanones, flavanonols, flavones, flavonols, and isoflavones) [ 7 , 25 , 26 ]. Their biosynthesis, which is shown in Figure 1 , comprises the shikimate, phenylpropanoid, and flavonoid pathways, and involves deamination, hydroxylation, and methylation reactions [ 25 ].…”

“…Among the phenolic compounds, anthocyanidins and their conjugated acyl-glycosylated or glycosylated forms, called anthocyanins, are both members of the flavonoids and an interesting class of water-soluble vacuolar pigments [ 7 ]. They are synthetized via the flavonoid path and considered the major contributors to the vivid red, orange, violet, and blue colours exhibited by various edible flowers, vegetables, fruits, some cereals, seeds and plant leaves, and their derivatives, such as juices, tea, and red wines [ 8 ].…”

Chemical composition, bioactive compounds extraction, and observed biological activities from jussara (Euterpe edulis): The exotic and endangered Brazilian superfruit

“…The color exhibited by the molecules was first proposed by Pauling in 1939, who suggested that the resonant structure of the ion was responsible for the intensity of their color (Wrolstad et al., 2005). Their color positively depends on the number of hydroxyl groups on the B ring; with more groups, deeper is the blue color hydroxyl groups on the B ring; with more groups, deeper is the blue color (Alappat & Alappat, 2020). Pigments with pelargonidin usually produce red, and cyanidin derivatives usually produce purple colors (Harborne & Williams, 2000).…”

Overproduction of anthocyanin in ginseng hairy roots enhances their antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-elastase activities

“…Although anthocyanins are well known as water-soluble flavonoid pigments with colors ranging from orange and red to purple and blue in flowers, seeds, fruits, and vegetation, they are important in attracting pollinators, seed dispersal by promoting fruit consumption, as well as plant protection against biotic and abiotic stresses owing to their antioxidant properties (Liu et al 2018). There are numerous papers regarding the health benefits of anthocyanins because of their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects (Alappat and Alappat 2020), indicating that they are integrally involved interactions between humans and nature. In higher plants, anthocyanin biosynthesis is modulated by the transcriptional complex MYB-bHLH-WD40 (MBW complex) comprising DNA-binding R2R3 MYB transcription factors, basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) proteins, and WD40 repeat proteins (Xu et al 2015).…”