Anthropogenic mortality of large mammals and trends of conflict over two decades in Nepal

Abstract

Wildlife conservation in human‐dominated landscapes faces increased challenges due to rising conflicts between humans and wildlife. We investigated the human and wildlife loss rates due to human–wildlife conflict between 2000 and 2020 in Nepal. We concentrated on Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ), greater one‐horned rhino ( Rhinoceros unicornis ), tiger ( Panthera tigirs ), and leopard ( Panthera pardus ) mortality, as well as human mortality caused by these species. Over the 21‐year period, we recorded 1139 cases of wildlife mortality and 887 cases of human mortality. Leopard mortality was the highest, followed by that of greater one‐horned rhinos, tigers, and Asian elephants. Overall, the rate of wildlife mortality has been increasing over the years. Asian elephants were found to be more responsible for crop damage than greater one‐horned rhinos, while leopards were found to be more responsible for livestock depredation than tigers. The generalized linear model indicated that the mortality of wildlife in the districts is best predicted by the additive effect of human mortality, the proportion of agricultural land, and the literacy rate of the districts. Retaliatory wildlife mortality was the most challenging issue for wildlife conservation, especially for the large mammals. Findings from this study are important for mitigation of human–wildlife conflicts, controlling retaliatory killing, and conserving these threatened large mammals.

Impact of climate change on distribution of common leopard (Panthera pardus) and its implication on conservation and conflict in Nepal

“…Forest succession in such abandoned agricultural lands has extended the habitat of wildlife. Human leopard conflicts in human-dominated landscapes may increase as the common leopard habitat expands into agricultural land [ 77 ].…”

Spatio-temporal patterns of human-wildlife conflicts and effectiveness of mitigation in Shuklaphanta National Park, Nepal

“…Around 1139 large mammal and 887 human deaths were recorded in Nepal between 2000–2020 [ 10 ] which demonstrates the serious threats on wildlife survival and human mortality. In addition, almost 800 incidents of crop damage by Asian elephants (n = 517) and greater one-horned rhino (n = 280) and 357 livestock depredation events by tigers (n = 77) and leopards (n = 280) were reported from Nepal annually [ 10 ]. In protected areas of Nepal, the incidences of wildlife attacks can also threaten human livelihood, for example, 4,014 wildlife incidents with humans, livestock, crops, and other property damage occurred in Chitwan National Park [ 26 ].…”

“…Conflicts were mainly due to increasing wildlife crime associated with increased demand for wildlife and their body parts [5], livestock and crop depredation, attacks on humans, and property damage [6]. Losses from wildlife including crop damage [7], livestock depredation [8], and human injuries or death [9,10] increase negative attitudes of people toward wildlife [11]. These negative attitudes can adversely affect many wildlife species due to retaliatory killing [11,12].…”

“…In Nepal, attacks on people are largely by large mammals including tigers (P. tigris; [20]), leopards (P. pardus; [21,22]), greater one-horned rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis; [23]), Asian elephants; [24]) and Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus; [25]). Around 1139 large mammal and 887 human deaths were recorded in Nepal between 2000-2020 [10] which demonstrates the serious threats on wildlife survival and human mortality. In addition, almost 800 incidents of crop damage by Asian elephants (n = 517) and greater one-horned rhino (n = 280) and 357 livestock depredation events by tigers (n = 77) and leopards (n = 280) were reported from Nepal annually [10].…”

Application of DNA forensic to identify a problem leopard and its implications for human-leopard conflict mitigation

“…This underscores the heightened vulnerability of these groups to leopard attacks, which has led to an increasing number of human-induced leopard fatalities in Nepal (Thapa, 2014a). Since the early 2000s, leopards have been the most targeted wild animals killed in retaliation during human-animal conflict incidents across the country (Baral et al, 2022), with rural hilly districts having the highest density of conflict incidents (Adhikari et al, 2022). These fatalities are typically the result of the killing of leopards declared to be problem animals (Thapa, 2014a).…”