Application of Leg, Vertical, and Joint Stiffness in Running Performance: A Literature Overview

Abstract

Stiffness, the resistance to deformation due to force, has been used to model the way in which the lower body responds to landing during cyclic motions such as running and jumping. Vertical, leg, and joint stiffness provide a useful model for investigating the store and release of potential elastic energy via the musculotendinous unit in the stretch-shortening cycle and may provide insight into sport performance. This review is aimed at assessing the effect of vertical, leg, and joint stiffness on running performance as such an investigation may provide greater insight into performance during this common form of locomotion. PubMed and SPORTDiscus databases were searched resulting in 92 publications on vertical, leg, and joint stiffness and running performance. Vertical stiffness increases with running velocity and stride frequency. Higher vertical stiffness differentiated elite runners from lower-performing athletes and was also associated with a lower oxygen cost. In contrast, leg stiffness remains relatively constant with increasing velocity and is not strongly related to the aerobic demand and fatigue. Hip and knee joint stiffness are reported to increase with velocity, and a lower ankle and higher knee joint stiffness are linked to a lower oxygen cost of running; however, no relationship with performance has yet been investigated. Theoretically, there is a desired “leg-spring” stiffness value at which potential elastic energy return is maximised and this is specific to the individual. It appears that higher “leg-spring” stiffness is desirable for running performance; however, more research is needed to investigate the relationship of all three lower limb joint springs as the hip joint is often neglected. There is still no clear answer how training could affect mechanical stiffness during running. Studies including muscle activation and separate analyses of local tissues (tendons) are needed to investigate mechanical stiffness as a global variable associated with sports performance.

Not Lower-Limb Joint Strength and Stiffness but Vertical Stiffness and Isometric Force-Time Characteristics Correlate With Running Economy in Recreational Male Runners

“…Therefore, the muscle contraction behavior, movement pattern and angular velocity differences may limit the association between isokinetic strength testing and practical running. energy during vertical and horizontal movements (Dalleau et al, 1998;Heise and Martin, 2001;Struzik et al, 2021). In our study, the K leg values (13.04 kN•m −1 ) and K vert values (25.07 kN•m −1 ) reported are similar to those of previous studies at similar speeds among recreational runners (Morin et al, 2005;García-Pinillos et al, 2019b).…”

“…Furthermore, the lower-limb joints constitute a multi-spring system with different elasticities and viscosities ( Kuitunen et al, 2002 ). The torsional spring model provides a different perspective on spring-mass model, while knee or ankle stiffness (K knee and K ankle ) has the greatest effect on leg-spring stiffness during running ( Struzik et al, 2021 ). However, few studies have examined the associations of K knee and K ankle with RE.…”

Consequences of the SARS-CoV-2 Infection on Anaerobic Performances in Young Elite Soccer Players

“…Stiffness is a quantitative measure of the elastic properties of the body and it determines the ability to accumulate potential elastic energy [ 29 ]. Muscle tension is a factor regulating the stiffness of the support limb during jumps [ 30 ]. This test measured the reactive force during seven vertical jumps realized twice (1 min rest), hands on hips, with straight knees.…”

Resistance Exercise for Improving Running Economy and Running Biomechanics and Decreasing Running-Related Injury Risk: A Narrative Review

“…Consequently, studies have typically calculated quasi-stiffness, which is defined as the ability of the human body to resist displacement [ 17 ]. For instance, vertical quasi-stiffness is defined as the ratio between changes in the ground reaction force and vertical displacement of the center of mass, while joint quasi-stiffness describes the angular displacement within a joint in relation to joint moments [ 18 , 19 ]. RE can increase reactive strength and quasi-stiffness (although the results on directly measured muscle stiffness are inconclusive [ 20 ]).…”