Application of Pesticide Sprays to Fresh Produce: A Risk Assessment for Hepatitis A and Salmonella

Stine, Scott; Song, Inhong; Choi, Christopher Y.; Gerba, Charles P.

doi:10.1007/s12560-011-9061-x

Cited by 17 publications

(10 citation statements)

References 33 publications

(38 reference statements)

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“…However, in a large number of the outbreaks of human NoV in leafy vegetables and fruits/nuts, the point of contamination could not be determined, and it is possible that more contamination occurred during production and processing than could be verified in this survey (2). During production, virus-contaminated irrigation water, water for the dilution of agrochemicals and fertilizers, and water for hydroponic cultures can all introduce virus into fresh produce (20)(21)(22). Sewage-contaminated irrigation water has been theorized to account for several human NoV outbreaks in berries, although this has not been confirmed (11,12).…”

mentioning

confidence: 94%

Effects of Abiotic and Biotic Stresses on the Internalization and Dissemination of Human Norovirus Surrogates in Growing Romaine Lettuce

DiCaprio

Purgianto

Lǐ

2015

Appl Environ Microbiol

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Human norovirus (NoV) is the major causative agent of fresh-produce-related outbreaks of gastroenteritis; however, the ecology and persistence of human NoV in produce systems are poorly understood. In this study, the effects of abiotic and biotic stresses on the internalization and dissemination of two human NoV surrogates (murine norovirus 1 [MNV-1] and Tulane virus [TV]) in romaine lettuce were determined. To induce abiotic stress, romaine lettuce was grown under drought and flood conditions that mimic extreme weather events, followed by inoculation of soil with MNV-1 or TV. Independently, lettuce plants were infected with lettuce mosaic virus (LMV) to induce biotic stress, followed by inoculation with TV. Plants were grown for 14 days, and viral titers in harvested tissues were determined by plaque assays. It was found that drought stress significantly decreased the rates of both MNV-1 and TV internalization and dissemination. In contrast, neither flood stress nor biotic stress significantly impacted viral internalization or dissemination. Additionally, the rates of TV internalization and dissemination in soil-grown lettuce were significantly higher than those for MNV-1. Collectively, these results demonstrated that (i) human NoV surrogates can be internalized via roots and disseminated to shoots and leaves of romaine lettuce grown in soil, (ii) abiotic stress (drought) but not biotic stress (LMV infection) affects the rates of viral internalization and dissemination, and (iii) the type of virus affects the efficiency of internalization and dissemination. This study also highlights the need to develop effective measures to eliminate internalized viruses in fresh produce. Human norovirus (NoV) is the major cause of nonbacterial gastroenteritis, contributing to Ͼ95% of nonbacterial acute gastroenteritis worldwide and Ͼ60% of all food-borne illnesses reported annually in the United States (1-4). High-risk foods for human NoV contamination include fresh produce, shellfish, and ready-to-eat foods. As individuals are increasingly striving to achieve healthier diets, the consumption of fresh produce has increased in recent years, and fresh produce is now recognized as a leading cause of food-borne illness in the United States (5, 6). Human NoV alone accounts for more than 40% of the freshproduce-related illnesses reported each year in the United States (1, 2, 4, 6-9). Outbreaks in many diverse types of produce, including fresh cut fruit, lettuce, tomatoes, melons, salads, green onions, strawberries, blueberries, raspberries, and salsa, have been attributed to human NoV (6, 7, 10-15). Human NoV is highly infectious, is resistant to common disinfectants, has a low infectious dose, and is highly stable in the environment, all features that contribute to the high prevalence of food-borne outbreaks associated with the virus and its presence and persistence in food commodities (3,5,7,(16)(17)(18)(19).Fresh produce can become contaminated with human NoV at any step from production to processing. In a survey of the point of...

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mentioning

confidence: 94%

Effects of Abiotic and Biotic Stresses on the Internalization and Dissemination of Human Norovirus Surrogates in Growing Romaine Lettuce

DiCaprio

Purgianto

Lǐ

2015

Appl Environ Microbiol

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“…Field trials were performed not simply to use the data, but rather to simulate the transfer of the pathogens in (irrigation) water to the crop via the development of a formula to calculate transfer rate. In 2 studies done by Stine and others (, ), field trials were conducted to obtain the percentages of microorganisms transferred from water to the surface of fresh produce via irrigation and by application of water‐diluted pesticide spray, respectively. In both studies, the coliphage PRD1 and E. coli ATCC 25922 were used as surrogates for the transfer of HAV and Salmonella , respectively.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…A downside of the latter 2 approaches is that the data may not be very applicable to other situations, as different environmental and climatic conditions could influence the final microbial loads. In several field studies, the influence of crop type was investigated by selecting a root, leaf, and fruit crop each of varying heights (Stine and others ; Bastos and others ; Finley and others ; Stine and others ).…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…As a result of the frequent unavailability of relevant pathogen survival data on fresh produce, surrogate data and assumptions have mostly been used in selected QMRAs. However, the preferred (first) approach is the use of actual growth curves or studies on persistence obtained for the relevant pathogen on the specific produce item under consideration, such as by Stine and others (, ). Yet in some cases the use of surrogate data or surrogates (second approach) is more practical or even a necessity.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In addition to irrigation, water can also be used for delivery of pesticides in the form of a spray, whereby the spray can make direct contact with the edible portion of the plant, serving as a source of pathogen contamination. Hence, pathogen concentrations in water used for pesticide dilution should also be contained in order to comply with acceptable risk levels (Stine and others ).…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Zero Risk Does Not Exist: Lessons Learned from Microbial Risk Assessment Related to Use of Water and Safety of Fresh Produce

Keuckelaere

Jacxsens

Amoah

et al. 2015

Comp Rev Food Sci Food Safe

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Risk assessments related to use of water and safety of fresh produce originate from both water and food microbiology studies. Although the set-up and methodology of risk assessment in these 2 disciplines may differ, analysis of the current literature reveals some common outcomes. Most of these studies from the water perspective focus on enteric virus risks, largely because of their anticipated high concentrations in untreated wastewater and their resistance to common wastewater treatments. Risk assessment studies from the food perspective, instead, focus mainly on bacterial pathogens such as Salmonella and pathogenic Escherichia coli. Few site-specific data points were available for most of these microbial risk assessments, meaning that many assumptions were necessary, which are repeated in many studies. Specific parameters lacking hard data included rates of pathogen transfer from irrigation water to crops, pathogen penetration, and survival in or on food crops. Data on these factors have been investigated over the last decade and this should improve the reliability of future microbial risk estimates. However, the sheer number of different foodstuffs and pathogens, combined with water sources and irrigation practices, means that developing risk models that can span the breadth of fresh produce safety will be a considerable challenge. The new approach using microbial risk assessment is objective and evidence-based and leads to more flexibility and enables more tailored risk management practices and guidelines. Drawbacks are, however, capacity and knowledge to perform the microbial risk assessment and the need for data and preferably data of the specific region.Keywords: fruits and vegetables, health risk, mitigation strategies, quantitative microbial risk assessment, water Practical Application: This manuscripts intends to give an extensive overview of approaches and challenges of past and future quantitative microbial risk assessment studies in the fresh produce chain related to the use of water in order to aid further research efforts in this area.

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Water Quality

Gerba

Rock

2014

The Produce Contamination Problem

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Application of Pesticide Sprays to Fresh Produce: A Risk Assessment for Hepatitis A and Salmonella

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to quantify the transfer of viral and bacterial pathogens in water used to dilute pesticides sprayed onto the surfaces of cantaloupe, iceberg lettuce, and bell peppers. The average percent transfer of bacteria was estimated to range from 0.00021 to 9.4%

Cited by 17 publications

References 33 publications

Effects of Abiotic and Biotic Stresses on the Internalization and Dissemination of Human Norovirus Surrogates in Growing Romaine Lettuce

Effects of Abiotic and Biotic Stresses on the Internalization and Dissemination of Human Norovirus Surrogates in Growing Romaine Lettuce

Zero Risk Does Not Exist: Lessons Learned from Microbial Risk Assessment Related to Use of Water and Safety of Fresh Produce

Water Quality

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