Arterial Stress Hormones during Scuba Diving with Different Breathing Gases

Weist, Frank; Strobel, Günther; Hölzl, Mathias; Böning, Dieter

doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e31824800f3

Cited by 6 publications

(8 citation statements)

References 20 publications

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“…However, it agrees with the other studies showing no increase in stress hormone (Weist et al. ) or even a decrease (Lund et al. ) in blood cortisol level during SCUBA dives.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 93%

“…Also contributing to this effect could be the raised hydrostatic pressure on the peripheral vasculature, which is known to lower adrenocortical hormone release (Weist et al. ). Regardless, cortisol appears to be a relatively insensitive marker in these situations as copeptin levels increased during APN‐S and decreased in SCU‐D without any changes in cortisol levels.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Physiological stress markers during breath‐hold diving and SCUBA diving

et al. 2019

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This study investigated the sources of physiological stress in diving by comparing SCUBA dives (stressors: hydrostatic pressure, cold, and hyperoxia), apneic dives (hydrostatic pressure, cold, physical activity, hypoxia), and dry static apnea (hypoxia only). We hypothesized that despite the hypoxia induces by a long static apnea, it would be less stressful than SCUBA dive or apneic dives since the latter combined high pressure, physical activity, and cold exposure. Blood samples were collected from 12 SCUBA and 12 apnea divers before and after dives. On a different occasion, samples were collected from the apneic group before and after a maximal static dry apnea. We measured changes in levels of the stress hormones cortisol and copeptin in each situation. To identify localized effects of the stress, we measured levels of the cardiac injury markers troponin ( cTnI ) and brain natriuretic peptide ( BNP ), the muscular stress markers myoglobin and lactate), and the hypoxemia marker ischemia‐modified albumin ( IMA ). Copeptin, cortisol, and IMA levels increased for the apneic dive and the static dry apnea, whereas they decreased for the SCUBA dive. Troponin, BNP , and myoglobin levels increased for the apneic dive, but were unchanged for the SCUBA dive and the static dry apnea. We conclude that hypoxia induced by apnea is the dominant trigger for the release of stress hormones and cardiac injury markers, whereas cold or and hyperbaric exposures play a minor role. These results indicate that subjects should be screened carefully for pre‐existing cardiac diseases before undertaking significant apneic maneuvers.

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“…However, it agrees with the other studies showing no increase in stress hormone (Weist et al. ) or even a decrease (Lund et al. ) in blood cortisol level during SCUBA dives.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 93%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Physiological stress markers during breath‐hold diving and SCUBA diving

et al. 2019

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“…Yet, to our knowledge there is no data on stress response to prolonged cold water exposure. Limited contradictory data exist in recreational SCUBA divers on HPA and SAM/SNSesponse to short duration dives (15-20 min) and in moderately cold water (15-19 °C) (Weist et al, 2012;Zarezadeh & Azarbayjani, 2014;Marlinge et al, 2019). Findings from these efforts showed a mixed change in cortisol (e.g.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The effect of this potential "push-pull" between parasympathetic and sympathetic dominance is unexamined in divers. Limited studies in recreational divers have focused on the cortisol response to changes in environmental pressure (depth) during short duration (15-20 min) dives; yet the impact on thermoregulation has not been examined (Weist et al, 2012;Zarezadeh and Azarbayjani, 2014).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Prolonged Extreme Cold Water Diving and the Acute Stress Response During Military Dive Training

et al. 2022

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Introduction: Cold water exposure poses a unique physiological challenge to the human body. Normally, water submersion increases activation of parasympathetic tone to induce bradycardia in order to compensate for hemodynamic shifts and reduce oxygen consumption by peripheral tissues. However, elevated stress, such as that which may occur due to prolonged cold exposure, may shift the sympatho-vagal balance towards sympathetic activation which may potentially negate the dive reflex and impact thermoregulation.Objective: To quantify the acute stress response during prolonged extreme cold water diving and to determine the influence of acute stress on thermoregulation.Materials and Methods: Twenty-one (n = 21) subjects tasked with cold water dive training participated. Divers donned standard diving equipment and fully submerged to a depth of ≈20 feet, in a pool chilled to 4°C, for a 9-h training exercise. Pre- and post-training measures included: core and skin temperature; salivary alpha amylase (AA), cortisol (CORT), osteocalcin (OCN), testosterone (TEST) and dehydroepiandosterone (DHEA); body weight; blood glucose, lactate, and ketones.Results: Core, skin, and extremity temperature decreased (p < 0.001) over the 9-h dive; however, core temperature was maintained above the clinical threshold for hypothermia and was not correlated to body size (p = 0.595). There was a significant increase in AA (p < 0.001) and OCN (p = 0.021) and a significant decrease in TEST (p = 0.003) over the duration of the dive. An indirect correlation between changes in cortisol concentrations and changes in foot temperature (ρ = -0.5,p = 0.042) were observed. There was a significant positive correlation between baseline OCN and change in hand temperature (ρ = 0.66, p = 0.044) and significant indirect correlation between changes in OCN concentrations and changes in hand temperature (ρ = -0.59, p = 0.043).Conclusion: These data suggest that long-duration, cold water diving initiates a stress response—as measurable by salivary stress biomarkers—and that peripheral skin temperature decreases over the course of these dives. Cumulatively, these data suggest that there is a relationship between the acute stress response and peripheral thermoregulation.

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“…There are several ways to trigger the diving response, such as facial immersion in water (Al Haddad et al, 2010; Kinoshita et al, 2006), and total body submersion. In both cases, variations may include breath‐hold (Costalat et al, 2015; Schipke & Pelzer, 2001), breathing through a snorkel (Al Haddad et al, 2010; Schipke & Pelzer, 2001), or, for total body submersion only, case self‐contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) diving (Chouchou et al, 2009; Lundell et al, 2019; Lundell et al, 2021; Noh et al, 2018; Schipke & Pelzer, 2001; Weist et al, 2012). A third potential trigger is cooling of the face (e.g., using an ice pack) (Allen et al, 1992; Louis et al, 2015; Ruschil et al, 2021; Schlader et al, 2016).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The diving response and cardiac vagal activity: A systematic review and meta‐analysis

et al. 2022

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In recent years, the diving response has received remarkable attention regarding improving mental health and well-being (Pubmed search "diving response" from 0 to 2010 = 125 articles, from 2011 to 2022 = 372 articles). This line of research has shown promising results, including reducing symptoms of depression, followed by a gradual reduction and eventually cessation of medication (van Tulleken et al., 2018), increases in well-being and positive

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Arterial Stress Hormones during Scuba Diving with Different Breathing Gases

Cited by 6 publications

References 20 publications

Physiological stress markers during breath‐hold diving and SCUBA diving

Physiological stress markers during breath‐hold diving and SCUBA diving

Prolonged Extreme Cold Water Diving and the Acute Stress Response During Military Dive Training

The diving response and cardiac vagal activity: A systematic review and meta‐analysis

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