“…These focus on Roman and medieval England (Arthur, Gowland, & Redfern, 2016;Lewis et al, 2016aLewis et al, , 2016bShapland, Lewis, & Watts, 2015), early modern Portugal (Henderson & Padez, 2017) and a Muslim osteological sample from Spain (Doe, Pérez, Cambra-Moo, Martín, & González Martín, 2019). Most of these communities lived in urban settlements and showed frequent pubertal delay compared to historic ranges and F I G U R E 1 Location of the Middenbeemster excavation (red churchyard symbol) on a crop of the ESRI world street map of the Netherlands modern standards (Arthur et al, 2016;Doe et al, 2019;Henderson & Padez, 2017;Lewis et al, 2016aLewis et al, , 2016bShapland et al, 2015). Factors explaining such a delay in urban environments include pollution, strenuous physical work, and population density aiding the spread of chronic disease (tuberculosis and other lung diseases specifically; Lewis et al, 2016aLewis et al, , 2016bShapland & Lewis, 2013;Shapland et al, 2015).…”