Assessing the Impact of Land Use and Land Cover Changes on Aflaj Systems over a 36-Year Period

Abstract

The aflaj systems represent unique irrigation technologies that have been implemented in the Sultanate of Oman. This innovative system, referred to as “falaj” in the singular form, is composed of a sophisticated network of underground tunnels and open-air channels designed to access shallow subterranean water tables, thereby providing water for residential and agricultural use. The aflaj systems have played a significant role in supporting sustainable water resource management in arid and semiarid regions, making a notable contribution to the socioeconomic development of the country. The alteration of land use and land cover (LULC) in arid and semiarid regions can have significant consequences for hydrological systems, affecting the ability of local ecosystems to manage fresh surface and groundwater resources. These changes are often caused by both natural and anthropogenic factors. To investigate the impact of LULC changes on aflaj systems in the northern part of Oman, we utilized satellite imagery, aflaj data, and spatial analytical and image processing techniques within the framework of geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing. In the first part of the study, we quantified the changes in LULC and their impact on aflaj systems in seven cities in Oman due to urban expansion. In the second part, we evaluated the effect of LULC on groundwater for four major aflaj between 1985 and 2021. The study area was divided into four primary LULC classifications: vegetation, bodies of water, metropolitan areas, and bare soil. The classification maps demonstrated a high overall accuracy of 90% to 95%, indicating satisfactory performance. Our results revealed a significant reduction in vegetation areas between 1985 and 2021, primarily shifting from bare soil (BS) to urban areas (UAs) and from vegetation cover (VC) to BS, due to the reduction of groundwater resources. Over the four study periods (1985–1990, 1990–2000, 2000–2013, and 2013–2021), the percentages of the total area of Falaj Al-Muyasser, Falaj Daris, Falaj Al-Maliki, and Falaj Al-Khatmeen that transformed from agricultural lands to UAs were 40%, 39%, 32%, and 8%, respectively. Our study highlights the need for appropriate land management and planning to ensure the most effective solutions are utilized to meet social and economic sustainability requirements. In conclusion, our study presents a comprehensive analysis of LULC changes and their impact on aflaj systems over a 36-year period, providing new insights into the potential effects of LULC changes on groundwater resources and offering a basis for informed decision making on land management in arid and semiarid areas.

Climate Change and Anthropogenic Factors Are Influencing the Loss of Habitats and Emerging Human–Elephant Conflict in the Namib Desert

“…To render these raster datasets together, the bands 1-7 for Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) and 1-8 for the Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) were composted to form a single raster image for each year [91,92], using the ArcMap 10.7.1's Image Analysis Raster Composite tool. Bands combinations of 4, 3, and 2 and 5, 4, and 3 were selected for Landsat 7 ETM and 8 OLI surface reflectance data, respectively [93][94][95]. However, the OLI reflectance is greater than the ETM reflectance band, thus there could be some differences for the near-infrared (NIR) and visible light (VIS) produced [96].…”

Untitled

“…Groundwater, the fundamental life-sustaining earthly resource is increasingly fraught with demand due to escalating population numbers, burgeoning urban growth and intensifying agricultural practices (El-Khoury, 2022;Salem et al, 2023). Such dynamics are propelling rapid modifications in land use/land cover (LULC) within human timelines (Ansari et al, 2016;Siddik et al, 2022a;Al-Kindi et al, 2023;). Anthropogenic interference has significantly impacted nature's recharging mechanisms along with patterns of subterranean water flow cycle too (Scanlon et al, 2005;Han et al, 2017;Mojid & Mainuddin, 2021;Siddik et al, 2022a).…”

“…Each of these transformations has diverse impacts on the recharge rates of groundwater (Baker & Miller, 2013;Kuroda et al, 2017;El-Khoury, 2022;Siddik et al, 2022a). Thus, the quantification of the effects of changes in land cover on groundwater sources and the formulation of well-informed groundwater management policies is one of the rational actions (El-Khoury, 2022;Al-Kindi et al, 2023). and it plays a crucial role in contributing to Sustainable Development Goal 6 of the United Nations (Mensah et al, 2022).…”

Assessing the environmental factors affecting the sustainability of Aini Falaj system

“…This might have a severe influence on agricultural output and local residents’ capacity to sustain their way of live. Due to changes in use of land, this system has challenges in Oman [ 7 ]. Demand for land rises as the country urbanizes, potentially causing changes in land use patterns.…”