Assessment of spring water quality and quantity, and health implications in Tongaren division, Nzoia River catchment, Kenya

Abstract

Spring water is the common source of public water supply in most rural communities of developing countries such as Kenya. The water quality and quantity may be altered due to catchments degradation. This study was carried out in Tongaren division, Nzoia River catchment. The aim of this study was to investigate and map the occurrence and distribution of springs and to determine their water quality and quantity. This study determined the spring water discharge, conductivity, turbidity, total and thermotolerant (faecal) coliforms to assess suitability and sustainability of spring water for safe drinking. Twenty‐eight springs were identified and their locations mapped using Global Positioning System (GPS) geo‐reference data. Discharge ranged from 0.1 to 3 l s−1, with some drying up during dry season. Total coliform was innumerable in most of the studied springs while thermotolerant (faecal) coliform counts occurred in eight springs, including four protected springs. This poses high risks of water‐borne diseases. The water should be filtered and boiled prior to use for drinking. Facilitation of communities enabled development of seven springs to enhance water yield and quality. This study established high potential in the communities to develop springs and utilize the spring water as alternative source of livelihoods.

Household-stored drinking water quality among households of under-five children with and without acute diarrhea in towns of Wegera District, in North Gondar, Northwest Ethiopia

“…A study in Kenya revealed that total coliform was abundant in most of the spring water sources studied including protected springs, whereas fecal coliform was present in 29% of spring water sources. The authors noted that the presence of coliform may pose a high risk of water-borne diarrhea diseases (Simiyu et al 2009 ). A study on the effect of improved water supplies on U5 diarrhea prevalence showed that improved water supply reduced diarrhea in U5 children by only 11% (Cha et al 2015 ).…”

Occurrence and Concentration of Heavy Metals in a Rural Spring in South-eastern Nigeria

“…Spring water is usually safe from contaminants (i.e. pathogens, chemicals, metals); since groundwater is naturally filtered as it flows through the soil (Simiyu et al, 2009). Hence, spring water is generally safe for human consumption (Hawley, 2003).…”

“…Hence, spring water is generally safe for human consumption (Hawley, 2003). Spring water quality may be altered due to exposure to metallic elements (Marcovecchio et al, 2007;Simiyu et al, 2009). The term ''heavy metals'' refers to any metallic element that has relatively high density and applies to the group of metals and metalloids with atomic density greater than 5 g/cm 3 (Oveset al, 2012).…”

Physicochemical investigation of some primitive water sources in district Champawat for potability and preservation of historical aesthetics, Uttarakhand, India

“…Water is the basic need of all and essential for sustaining basic human functions, health and food production. Along with this, it helps in various activities, like digestion of food, adsorption, transportation and removal of toxins and wastes from the body [4]. Humans cannot produce this inevitable element of life and as the life relies on water, the quality of water becomes one of the very essential aspects in order to make it pollution free so that various water sources (ground water, surface water) can be protected.…”