Associations of Whole Blood n-3 and n-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids with Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents – Results from the IDEFICS/I.Family Cohort

Abstract

BackgroundPolyunsaturated n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are precursors of biologically active metabolites that affect blood pressure (BP) regulation. This study investigated the association of n-3 and n-6 PUFA and BP in children and adolescents.MethodsIn a subsample of 1267 children aged 2–9 years at baseline of the European IDEFICS (Identification and prevention of dietary- and lifestyle-induced health effects in children and infants) cohort whole blood fatty acids were measured by a validated gas chromatographic method. Systolic and diastolic BP was measured at baseline and after two and six years. Mixed-effects models were used to assess the associations between fatty acids at baseline and BP z-scores over time adjusting for relevant covariables. Models were further estimated stratified by sex and weight status.ResultsThe baseline level of arachidonic acid was positively associated with subsequent systolic BP (β = 0.08, P = 0.002) and diastolic BP (β = 0.07, P<0.001). In thin/normal weight children, baseline alpha-linolenic (β = -1.13, P = 0.003) and eicosapentaenoic acid (β = -0.85, P = 0.003) levels were inversely related to baseline and also to subsequent systolic BP and alpha-linolenic acid to subsequent diastolic BP. In overweight/obese children, baseline eicosapentaenoic acid level was positively associated with baseline diastolic BP (β = 0.54, P = 0.005).ConclusionsLow blood arachidonic acid levels in the whole sample and high n-3 PUFA levels in thin/normal weight children are associated with lower and therefore healthier BP. The beneficial effects of high n-3 PUFA on BP were not observed in overweight/obese children, suggesting that they may have been overlaid by the unfavorable effects of excess weight.

The role of a FADS1 polymorphism in the association of fatty acid blood levels, BMI and blood pressure in young children—Analyses based on path models

“…Thus, the unexpected effects of EPA are likely to result from effect modification by weight status. Also in a recent study, we found a beneficial effect of EPA on BP only in thin/normal weight children whereas an unfavorable association was observed in overweight/obese children [18]. We did not consider DHA in our analyses as the conversion efficiency from ALA and EPA to DHA is very low [54, 55] and we were particularly interested in the SNP’s influence on endogenous synthesis via FADS1 and the effects on BP in this analysis.…”

Linseed oil increases HDL3 cholesterol and decreases blood pressure in patients diagnosed with mild hypercholesterolaemia

“…The hypotensive effect of PUFAs is usually observed in patients aged > 45 years, taking higher doses of PUFAs (above 3-4 g per day) for a duration of > 12 weeks. Likewise, in children, high n-3 PUFA levels were associated with lower BP [10]. Hypotensive effect has also been documented with regard to DHA and EPA.…”

The Short Overview on the Relevance of Fatty Acids for Human Cardiovascular Disorders

“…A higher blood level of ARA is related to higher prevalence of arterial hypertension [153]. The research into the risk of atherosclerosis has revealed that lower LA levels and higher blood levels of ARA correspond to a higher risk of hypertension; moreover, ARA levels directly correlated with the body mass index and related metabolic syndrome [154][155][156].…”

“…Myristic acid (C14:0) -↑ the risk of developing IHD; ↑ total cholesterol concentration [32,39] Palmitic acid (C16:0) -↑ production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidants; promotes inflammation and the development of CVD [31,32,[34][35][36][37] ↓ LDL, glucose, arterial blood pressure normalizes [30] Stearic acid (C18:0) ± not correlate with a higher risk of IHD and MI; induces apoptosis and necrosis of endothelial cells; ↑ the risk of developing IHD [27,[44][45][46][47][48] does not have a significant influence on lipid metabolism [10,41] Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) ± ↓ cholesterol and TG concentrations; ↑ HDL cholesterol concentrations [56,57]; ↑ the risk of developing IHD [32] Oleic acid (C18:1) ± can improve the blood lipid profile [65]; ↓ the risk of atherosclerosis [69]; ↑ TG concentrations; ↑ markers of inflammation; ↑ the risk of developing heart failure [36,71] Linoleic acid (C18:2) + ↓ risk developing IHD and death from IHD [140,141]; does not affect the concentrations of inflammatory biomarkers [146,147] ↑ risk of arterial hypertension [154][155][156] α-Linolenic acid (C18:3) + ↓ the risk of death from IHD; ↓ the levels of LDL and total cholesterol; ↑ the levels of HDL [80][81][82];…”

“…↑ development of IHD [88] γ-Linolenic acid (C18:3) + ↓ concentrations of TG, total cholesterol and LDL; ↑ of the HDL concentrations [145]; ↓ development of arterial hypertension [146] ↑ TG concentrations [144] Arachidonic acid (C20:4) -↑ of biomarkers of inflammation; risk of CVD [132][133][134]; ↑ risk of arterial hypertension [153][154][155][156]; ↑ the risk of atherosclerosis [151,152];…”