Attitudes towards use of performance-enhancing substances and body modification techniques. A comparison between elite athletes and the general population

Abstract

Medical and technological developments open up new possibilities for modifying the body and enhancing performance in various areas of life. The study compares attitudes among Norwegian elite athletes (n = 234) with attitudes in the general population (n = 428). Whereas vitamins, nutritional supplements and hypoxic rooms were accepted by more than 65 percent of both athletes and population the rejection of EPO, anabolic steroids and amphetamines were similarly clear in both groups. The athletes were in general more reluctant to use means of performance enhancement and body modification techniques than the general population. A significantly higher percent of the population than the athletes accepted a) means to avoid memory failure in high age (61,6 versus 43,2, sig. .000), b) means to avoid decrease in physical fitness among old people (48,6 versus 34,7, sig .005), c) liposuction (30,1 versus 12,4, sig .000), d) surgery to eat much (15,3 versus 9,4, sig .035), e) silicon implants (9,9 versus 5,1, sig .001). The athletes were significantly more satisfied with their bodies than the population (sig .000).Males were more positive towards means of performance enhancement, whereas females were more positive towards body modification techniques.. Males were significantly more positive towards use of a) means that increase strength and endurance (sig .002) b) means that increase sexual performance (sig .000). Females were significantly more positive than males towards use of liposuction (sig .000), plastic surgery on face (sig. 013), surgery to eat much (sig. 000), silicon implants (sig. 000). The ambiguous status of enhancement technologies is reflected in the general population as well. There is reason to expect a variety of views based on differences in individual values and attitudes, in socio-cultural contexts as well as in practice-specific preferences. For example, due to the crucial role of physical performance and appearance, practices and institutions such as ballet, circus, fashion, the movie industry, body building and elite sport, seem more exposed to physical enhancement than others.In sport, especially at elite levels, there is a long tradition of experimentation and use of performance-enhancing methods and substances. 2 With the establishment of the World Anti-doping Agency (WADA) in 1999, sport has developed relatively strict antidoping regimes to control excessive use of such means. 3 However, the anti-doping campaign is contested both in terms of its effectiveness in controlling actual use and its effects on attitudes among athletes and the general public. Some even see the use of drugs as an integrated part of competitive sport and claim that the ban on their use cannot be justified. 4 Furthermore, we know little about the broader picture when it comes to attitudes towards various types of enhancement and body modification techniques.Overviews offered by among others Houlihan, Waddington, and Lueschen show that there is need for more extensive studies in this respect and for explanations ...

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