Autoimmune Cytopenias in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: Focus on Molecular Aspects

Fattizzo, Bruno; Barcellini, Wilma

doi:10.3389/fonc.2019.01435

Cited by 52 publications

(65 citation statements)

References 138 publications

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“…Table 3 summarizes the heavy and light chain gene usage. Next generation sequencing together with flow cytometry-assisted cell sorting of bone marrow from 16 patients enabled Malecka and coworkers to identify recurrent mutations of KMT2D (69%) and CARD11 (31%) (36,37). In diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, CARD11 mutations have been shown to induce constitutive activation of the NF-κB pathway (29,38).…”

Section: Origin Of Cold Agglutininsmentioning

confidence: 99%

New Insights in the Pathogenesis and Therapy of Cold Agglutinin-Mediated Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia

2020

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Autoimmune hemolytic anemias mediated by cold agglutinins can be divided into cold agglutinin disease (CAD), which is a well-defined clinicopathologic entity and a clonal lymphoproliferative disorder, and secondary cold agglutinin syndrome (CAS), in which a similar picture of cold-hemolytic anemia occurs secondary to another distinct clinical disease. Thus, the pathogenesis in CAD is quite different from that of polyclonal autoimmune diseases such as warm-antibody AIHA. In both CAD and CAS, hemolysis is mediated by the classical complement pathway and therefore can result in generation of anaphylotoxins, such as complement split product 3a (C3a) and, to some extent, C5a. On the other hand, infection and inflammation can act as triggers and drivers of hemolysis, exemplified by exacerbation of CAD in situations with acute phase reaction and the role of specific infections (particularly Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Epstein-Barr virus) as causes of CAS. In this review, the putative mechanisms behind these phenomena will be explained along with other recent achievements in the understanding of pathogenesis in these disorders. Therapeutic approaches have been directed against the clonal lymphoproliferation in CAD or the underlying disease in CAS. Currently, novel targeted treatments, in particular complement-directed therapies, are also being rapidly developed and will be reviewed.

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Section: Origin Of Cold Agglutininsmentioning

confidence: 99%

New Insights in the Pathogenesis and Therapy of Cold Agglutinin-Mediated Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia

2020

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“…In the case of HIV infection, as well as in other immunodeficiencies (e.g. common variable immunodeficiency -CVID and autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome -ALPS), loss of immunological tolerance is essential [49][50][51].…”

Section: Pathogenesis Of Aihamentioning

confidence: 99%

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia: current knowledge and perspectives

et al. 2020

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Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is an acquired, heterogeneous group of diseases which includes warm AIHA, cold agglutinin disease (CAD), mixed AIHA, paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria and atypical AIHA. Currently CAD is defined as a chronic, clonal lymphoproliferative disorder, while the presence of cold agglutinins underlying other diseases is known as cold agglutinin syndrome. AIHA is mediated by autoantibodies directed against red blood cells (RBCs) causing premature erythrocyte destruction. The pathogenesis of AIHA is complex and still not fully understood. Recent studies indicate the involvement of T and B cell dysregulation, reduced CD4+ and CD25+ Tregs, increased clonal expansions of CD8 + T cells, imbalance of Th17/Tregs and Tfh/Tfr, and impaired lymphocyte apoptosis. Changes in some RBC membrane structures, under the influence of mechanical stimuli or oxidative stress, may promote autohemolysis. The clinical presentation and treatment of AIHA are influenced by many factors, including the type of AIHA, degree of hemolysis, underlying diseases, presence of concomitant comorbidities, bone marrow compensatory abilities and the presence of fibrosis and dyserthropoiesis. The main treatment for AIHA is based on the inhibition of autoantibody production by mono- or combination therapy using GKS and/or rituximab and, rarely, immunosuppressive drugs or immunomodulators. Reduction of erythrocyte destruction via splenectomy is currently the third line of treatment for warm AIHA. Supportive treatment including vitamin supplementation, recombinant erythropoietin, thrombosis prophylaxis and the prevention and treatment of infections is essential. New groups of drugs that inhibit immune responses at various levels are being developed intensively, including inhibition of antibody-mediated RBCs phagocytosis, inhibition of B cell and plasma cell frequency and activity, inhibition of IgG recycling, immunomodulation of T lymphocytes function, and complement cascade inhibition. Recent studies have brought about changes in classification and progress in understanding the pathogenesis and treatment of AIHA, although there are still many issues to be resolved, particularly concerning the impact of age-associated changes to immunity.

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“…The relationship between CLL and autoimmune cytopenias, particularly autoimmune hemolytic anemia and immune thrombocytopenia, is well established. The responsible mechanism is ascribed to the fact that the global scenario of immunosuppression that characterizes CLL favors the expansion of autoreactive leukemic cells [9].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Immune Response Dysfunction in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: Dissecting Molecular Mechanisms and Microenvironmental Conditions

Arruga

Gyau

Iannello

et al. 2020

IJMS

103

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Representing the major cause of morbidity and mortality for chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) patients, immunosuppression is a common feature of the disease. Effectors of the innate and the adaptive immune response show marked dysfunction and skewing towards the generation of a tolerant environment that favors disease expansion. Major deregulations are found in the T lymphocyte compartment, with inhibition of CD8+ cytotoxic and CD4+ activated effector T cells, replaced by exhausted and more tolerogenic subsets. Likewise, differentiation of monocytes towards a suppressive M2-like phenotype is induced at the expense of pro-inflammatory sub-populations. Thanks to their B-regulatory phenotype, leukemic cells play a central role in driving immunosuppression, progressively inhibiting immune responses. A number of signaling cascades triggered by soluble mediators and cell–cell contacts contribute to immunomodulation in CLL, fostered also by local environmental conditions, such as hypoxia and derived metabolic acidosis. Specifically, molecular pathways modulating T-cell activity in CLL, spanning from the best known cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) and programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) to the emerging T cell immunoreceptor with immunoglobulin and immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibition motif domains (TIGIT)/CD155 axes, are attracting increasing research interest and therapeutic relevance also in the CLL field. On the other hand, in the microenvironment, the B cell receptor (BCR), which is undoubtedly the master regulator of leukemic cell behavior, plays an important role in orchestrating immune responses, as well. Lastly, local conditions of hypoxia, typical of the lymphoid niche, have major effects both on CLL cells and on non-leukemic immune cells, partly mediated through adenosine signaling, for which novel specific inhibitors are currently under development. In summary, this review will provide an overview of the molecular and microenvironmental mechanisms that modify innate and adaptive immune responses of CLL patients, focusing attention on those that may have therapeutic implications.

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Autoimmune Cytopenias in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: Focus on Molecular Aspects

Cited by 52 publications

References 138 publications

New Insights in the Pathogenesis and Therapy of Cold Agglutinin-Mediated Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia

New Insights in the Pathogenesis and Therapy of Cold Agglutinin-Mediated Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia: current knowledge and perspectives

Immune Response Dysfunction in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: Dissecting Molecular Mechanisms and Microenvironmental Conditions

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