“…The challenge hypothesis ) also offers a conceptual framework for attempts to explain the plasticity and the predictability of male androgen responses with parameters of the social environment, such as breeding dispersal, group living, social status (Beletsky et al, 1992;Wada et al, 1999), alternative life histories (Moore, 1991;Ketterson and Nolan, 1992;Oliveira et al, 2001b), and the predictability of the physical environment (Wingfield et al, 1993(Wingfield et al, , 2000. Because species living at high group densities may be adapted to cope with higher frequencies of malemale interactions, the challenge hypothesis would predict higher basal androgen levels throughout the breeding phases and hence, smaller androgen increases in response to an additional social challenge as compared with solitary males (Beletsky et al, 1992;Pankhurst and Barnett, 1993;Wada et al, 1999;Wingfield et al, 1999a).…”